CHILDREN OF HOMOSEXUALS MORE APT TO BE HOMOSEXUALS? A REPLY TO MORRISON AND TO CAMERON BASED ON AN EXAMINATION OF MULTIPLE SOURCES OF DATA

A Review and Critique of Research on Same-Sex Parenting and Adoption

Are the outcomes for children of gay, lesbian, or bisexual parents in general the same as those for heterosexual parents? That controversial question is discussed here in a detailed review of the social science literature in three parts: (1) stability of same-sex parental relationships, (2) child outcomes, and (3) child outcomes in same-sex adoption. Relationship instability appears to be higher among gay and lesbian parent couples and may be a key mediating factor influencing outcomes for children. With respect to part 2, while parental self-reports usually present few significant differences, social desirability or self-presentation bias may be a confounding factor. While some researchers have tended to conclude that there are no differences whatsoever in terms of child outcomes as a function of parental sexual orientation, such conclusions appear premature in the light of more recent data in which some different outcomes have been observed in a few studies. Studies conducted within the past 10 years that compared child outcomes for children of same-sex and heterosexual adoptive parents were reviewed. Numerous methodological limitations were identified that make it very difficult to make an accurate assessment of the effect of parental sexual orientation across adoptive families. Because of sampling limitations, we still know very little about family functioning among same-sex adoptive families with low or moderate incomes, those with several children, or those with older children, including adolescents or how family functioning may change over time. There remains a need for high-quality research on same-sex families, especially families with gay fathers and with lower income.

Sarantakos's Research on Same-Sex Parenting in Australia and New Zealand: Importance, Substance, and Corroboration with Research from the United States

Sarantakos (1996a) compared teacher ratings and other outcomes for the children of heterosexual married, heterosexual cohabiting, and homosexual parents and reported numerous significant, substantial differences. Few scholars have taken the effect sizes of his results into account or have considered his larger program of research. Sarantakos's research yielded many interesting findings with respect to children's academic performance, sexual orientation, use of alcohol and drugs, sexual deviance, and gender identity with respect to parents' parenting values, relationship stability, conflict, monogamy, and religiosity or moral values, many of which have been corroborated by U.S. or British research. In addition, the methodological quality of his research appears to be at least above average, especially for research done 20 or more years ago. He appears to have been unbiased with respect to same-sex families. His results disseminated via multiple publications should be taken into account in literature reviews concerning same-sex parenting.

Navigating Treacherous Waters—One Researcher's 40 Years of Experience with Controversial Scientific Research,

Science often must deal with issues that are politically controversial. However, there are dangers in dealing with controversial research and serious risks to the process of doing science and to the credibility of science, particularly social science. Here, I discuss lessons learned from engaging in and criticizing controversial research for nearly four decades. Social science research as a process is being damaged by questionable research practices, several of which are discussed. Social science results are being misrepresented through a variety of weak or incorrect methodologies, each of which is discussed. Discourse about social science results often shifts from academic discussion into attempts to discredit those with whom one may disagree. Science and the public are not being well served by these problems, so new researchers and policymakers need to be aware of them. For teaching purposes, examples are also presented of controversial research in which new analyses offer different results than previously reported.

Statistical Requirements for Properly Investigating a Null Hypothesis

Issues involved in the evaluation of null hypotheses are discussed. The use of equivalence testing is recommended as a possible alternative to the use of simple t or F tests for evaluating a null hypothesis. When statistical power is low and larger sample sizes are not available or practical, consideration should be given to using one-tailed tests or less conservative levels for determining criterion levels of statistical significance. Effect sizes should always be reported along with significance levels, as both are needed to understand results of research. Probabilities alone are not enough and are especially problematic for very large or very small samples. Pre-existing group differences should be tested and properly accounted for when comparing independent groups on dependent variables. If confirmation of a null hypothesis is expected, potential suppressor variables should be considered. If different methods are used to select the samples to be compared, controls for social desirability bias should be implemented. When researchers deviate from these standards or appear to assume that such standards are unimportant or irrelevant, their results should be deemed less credible than when such standards are maintained and followed. Several examples of recent violations of such standards in family social science, comparing gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender families with heterosexual families, are provided. Regardless of their political values or expectations, researchers should strive to test null hypotheses rigorously, in accordance with the best professional standards.