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Kayihura JF. Extent of κ-casein hydrolysis during renneting of bovine milk: A critical assessment of the analytical and estimation approaches. Food Sci Nutr 2024; 12:1399-1412. [PMID: 38455171 PMCID: PMC10916671 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.3868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Renneting is an enzymatic process that turns milk into curd which is then transformed into cheese. Rennet-induced coagulation of caseins (CNs) is the critical step during this process and the key is the primary hydrolysis of κ-CN's Phe105-Met106 bond by chymosin. This article comprehensively reviews the existing data on the extent/degree of κ-CN hydrolysis during renneting of bovine milk and critically evaluates its determination methods. The data show that under normal cheese-making conditions, milk gelation occurs at a degree of κ-CN hydrolysis <80%, which varies due to several factors including analytical and estimation approaches. The common approach involves isolating the macropeptides released, by precipitating whey proteins and residual CN in 1%-12% trichloroacetic acid (TCA), then assuming that the maximum amount obtained is 100% κ-CN hydrolysis. The drawback is that the estimated degree of κ-CN hydrolysis may be higher than the actual value as TCA partially precipitates the macropeptide fractions. Moreover, macropeptide isolation seems unnecessary based on current advances in chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques. The present work proposes a simple mass balance-based approach that will provide accurate estimates in future studies. The accuracy of measuring the degree of κ-CN hydrolysis has implications on the precision of the data in relation to its partitioning (% distribution between the curd and whey) which is essential for improving whey quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph F. Kayihura
- Advanced Food Systems Research Unit, Institute for Sustainable Industries and Liveable Cities, College of Health and BiomedicineVictoria UniversityMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
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Lin Y, Kelly AL, O'Mahony JA, Guinee TP. Addition of sodium caseinate to skim milk increases nonsedimentable casein and causes significant changes in rennet-induced gelation, heat stability, and ethanol stability. J Dairy Sci 2016; 100:908-918. [PMID: 27988112 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-11704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The protein content of skim milk was increased from 3.3 to 4.1% (wt/wt) by the addition of a blend of skim milk powder and sodium caseinate (NaCas), in which the weight ratio of skim milk powder to NaCas was varied from 0.8:0.0 to 0.0:0.8. Addition of NaCas increased the levels of nonsedimentable casein (from ∼6 to 18% of total casein) and calcium (from ∼36 to 43% of total calcium) and reduced the turbidity of the fortified milk, to a degree depending on level of NaCas added. Rennet gelation was adversely affected by the addition of NaCas at 0.2% (wt/wt) and completely inhibited at NaCas ≥0.4% (wt/wt). Rennet-induced hydrolysis was not affected by added NaCas. The proportion of total casein that was nonsedimentable on centrifugation (3,000 × g, 1 h, 25°C) of the rennet-treated milk after incubation for 1 h at 31°C increased significantly on addition of NaCas at ≥0.4% (wt/wt). Heat stability in the pH range 6.7 to 7.2 and ethanol stability at pH 6.4 were enhanced by the addition of NaCas. It is suggested that the negative effect of NaCas on rennet gelation is due to the increase in nonsedimentable casein, which upon hydrolysis by chymosin forms into small nonsedimentable particles that physically come between, and impede the aggregation of, rennet-altered para-casein micelles, and thereby inhibit the development of a gel network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingchen Lin
- Teagasc Food Research Centre Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
| | - Alan L Kelly
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - James A O'Mahony
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Timothy P Guinee
- Teagasc Food Research Centre Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland.
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Fortification of milk protein content with different dairy protein powders alters its compositional, rennet gelation, heat stability and ethanol stability characteristics. Int Dairy J 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2016.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Kethireddipalli P, Hill AR. Rennet Coagulation and Cheesemaking Properties of Thermally Processed Milk: Overview and Recent Developments. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:9389-9403. [PMID: 25607716 DOI: 10.1021/jf504167v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Thermally induced changes in milk proteins and minerals, particularly interactions among caseins and denatured whey proteins, influence important properties of dairy products in both positive and negative ways. Whereas the extensive protein connectivity and increased water-holding capacity resulting from such heat-induced protein modification account for the much desired firmness of acid gels of yogurt, thermal processing, on the other hand, severely impairs clotting and adversely affects the cheesemaking properties of rennet-coagulated cheeses. In technological terms, the principal ongoing challenge in the cheese industry is to take advantage of the water-holding capacity of thermally aggregated whey proteins without compromising the rennetability of cheese milk or the textural and functional attributes of cheese. Including some recent data from the authors' laboratory, this paper will discuss important aspects and current literature on the use of thermally processed milk in the production of rennet-coagulated cheeses and also some of the potential alternatives available for inclusion of whey proteins in cheese, such as the addition of microparticulated whey proteins to cheese milk.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arthur R Hill
- Department of Food Science, University of Guelph , Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
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Taylor C, Woonton B. Quantity and carbohydrate content of glycomacropeptide fractions isolated from raw and heat-treated milk. Int Dairy J 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2009.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Abstract
SummaryDuring 7 months' storage of heat-sterilized milk there were changes in the glycopeptides released by rennin (E.C. 3.4.4.3) action and soluble in 12% (w/v) trichloroacetic acid (TCA). The results showed a progressive decrease in the amount of carbohydrates attached to κ-casein. As these carbohydrates may contribute to the micelle-stabilizing power of κ-casein it was concluded that the loss of carbohydrates could be one factor in the development of gelation in heat-sterilized milks during storage.
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Abstract
SummaryThe effect of temperature and time of heating whole milk on the renninclotting time, the primary phase of rennin action and the protein (mainly β-lactoglobulin) soluble in 2% trichloroacetic acid (TCA), have been studied. Considerable changes in these parameters occurred above 60°C. The primary phase was inhibited (the degree of inhibition being both temperature and time-dependent), the clotting time was increased, and the protein soluble in 2% TCA decreased considerably.It is suggested that the inhibition of the primary phase was due to complex formation between κ-casein and β-lactoglobulin, the increase in clotting time to a combination of complex formation and a change in the distribution of Ca, and the decrease in β-lactoglobulin to both its interaction with κ-casein and its heat denaturation. The relevance of such changes to the heat stability of milk is discussed.
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Abstract
SummaryThe rennet coagulation times of infant milk formulae or fresh skim milk (milk) samples heated at temperatures in the range 70–140 °C for 1–10 min decreased on acidification, usually to pH < 6·0. Heated milk samples acidified to pH 5·5 and reneutralized to pH 6·6 retained good rennet coagulability. Acidification of such milk samples before heating also reduced the adverse effect of severe heat treatment (95 °C for 1 min) on rennet coagulation. Addition of low concentrations of CaCl2to heated milks offset the adverse effects of heating. Acidification of heated milks increased the [Ca2+], and reneutralization of acidified milk only partly restored the [Ca2+], i.e. acidified/reneutralized milk had a higher [Ca2+] than normal milk, suggesting this as the mechanism via which acidification/neutralization improves the rennet coagulability of heated milk. Approximately 50% of the whey protein can be incorporated into rennet gels in heated milks while retaining good coagulability and curd tension; this may be a useful technique for increasing cheese yield.
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Kelly AL, Huppertz T, Sheehan JJ. Pre-treatment of cheese milk: principles and developments. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1051/dst:2008017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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Abdel-Fattah AF, El-Hawwary NM. Action of some metal ions, EDTA, and heated milk on the milk-clotting process of Penicillium citrinum rennin-like enzyme. J Basic Microbiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.19730130502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Vasbinder AJ, Rollema HS, de Kruif CG. Impaired rennetability of heated milk; study of enzymatic hydrolysis and gelation kinetics. J Dairy Sci 2003; 86:1548-55. [PMID: 12778565 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(03)73740-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Casein micelles in milk are stable colloidal particles with a stabilizing hairy brush of kappa-casein. During cheese production rennet cleaves kappa-casein into casein macropeptide and para-kappa-casein, thereby destabilizing the casein micelle and resulting in aggregation and gel formation of the micelles. Heat treatment of milk causes impaired clotting properties, which makes heated milk unsuitable for cheese production. In this paper we compared five different techniques, often described in the literature, for their suitability to quantify the enzymatic hydrolysis of kappa-casein. It was found that the technique is crucial for the yield of casein macropeptide and this yield then affects the calculated enzymatic inhibition caused by heat treatment, ranging from 5 to 30%. The technique, which we found to be the most reliable, demonstrates that heat-induced calcium phosphate precipitation does not affect the enzymatic cleavage, while whey protein denaturation causes a very slight reduction of enzyme activity. By using diffusing wave spectroscopy, a very sensitive technique to monitor gelation processes, we demonstrated that heat-induced calcium phosphate precipitation does not affect the clotting. Whey protein denaturation does not affect the start of flocculation but has a clear effect on the clotting process. This work adds to a better understanding of the processes causing the impaired clotting properties of heated milk.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Vasbinder
- NIZO Food Research, P.O. Box 20, 6710 BA, Ede, The Netherlands
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GUINEE TP, FENELON MA, MULHOLLAND EO, O'KENNEDY BT, O'BRIEN N, REVILLE WJ. The influence of milk pasteurization temperature and pH at curd milling on the composition, texture and maturation of reduced fat cheddar cheese. INT J DAIRY TECHNOL 1998. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0307.1998.tb02631.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Guinee TP, Gorry CB, O'Callaghan DJ, O'Kennedy BT, O'Brie N, Fenelon MA. The effects of composition and some processing treatments on the rennet coagulation properties of milk. INT J DAIRY TECHNOL 1997. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0307.1997.tb01747.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Guinee TP, O'Callaghan DJ, Pudja PD, O'Brien N. Rennet coagulation properties of retentates obtained by ultrafiltration of skim milks heated to different temperatures. Int Dairy J 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0958-6946(95)00061-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Guinee TP, Pudja PD, Reville WJ, Harrington D, Mulholland EO, Cotter M, Cogan TM. Composition, microstructure and maturation of semi-hard cheeses from high protein ultrafiltered milk retentates with different levels of denatured whey protein. Int Dairy J 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0958-6946(94)00021-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Leaver J, Law AJ, Horne DS, Banks JM. Influence of heating regime and pH on the primary phase of renneting of whole milk. Int Dairy J 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0958-6946(95)92206-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Manji B, Kakuda Y. The Role of Protein Denaturation, Extent of Proteolysis, and Storage Temperature on the Mechanism of Age Gelation in a Model System. J Dairy Sci 1988. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(88)79708-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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22
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BANKS JEANM. Elimination of the development of bitter flavour in Cheddar cheese made from milk containing heat-denatured whey protein. INT J DAIRY TECHNOL 1988. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0307.1988.tb00582.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
Electron microscopy was employed to study the size distribution and the surface to volume ratios of casein micelles in coagulum from raw milk, heated milk and milk enriched with calcium chloride before the heating process. The particles size distribution of milk protein was changed by heating resulting in an increase in the free subunits of smaller size and the surface to volume ratios. On the other hand the clotting time was prolonged. Depression in the clotting time and surface to volume ratios was occurred by adding calcium chloride to the milk before the heating process to retard the formation of complex between the whey protein and milk casein.
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Thunell RK, Ernstrom CA, Hartman GH. Effects of small concentrations of Mucor miehei protease on stability of sterile milk-based dietetic foods. J Dairy Sci 1980; 63:32-6. [PMID: 6989865 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(80)82884-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Four commercial sterile milk-based dietetic products were inoculated aseptically with small concentrations of a commericial milk clotting enzyme derived from Mucor miehei and incubated at 30 C for 32 wk. One of the products, Sustacal, exhibited no observable changes in body and texture during storage. Enzyme concentrations of 1 x 10(-4) chymosin units per milliliter or higher induced undesirable changes in the body of the other three products, Enfamil Ready-to-Use, Enfamil Concentrate, and Metrecal Shape. None of the products was affected visibly by enzyme concentrations of 1 x 10(-5) chymosin units per milliliter or less. In-can sterilization of Enfamil Ready-to-Use at 126.1 C for 4.5 min and Enfamil Concentrate at 126.7 C for 4.23 min completely destroyed all measurable enzyme activity at concentrations (up to 5.5 x 10(-2) chymosin units per milliliter) in these experiments. However, 1 to 3 h between formulation and sterilization allowed time for the enzyme at concentrations of 1 x 10(-2) chymosin units per milliliter or more to cause coagulation during heat sterilization.
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Lee H, Olson N, Richardson T. Peptide Release from Milk During Treatment with Immobilized Pepsin and Totality of Clotting of Treated Milk. J Dairy Sci 1977. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(77)84090-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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26
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Schafer H, Olson N. Characteristics of Mozzarella Cheese Made by Direct Acidification from Ultra-High-Temperature Processed Milk. J Dairy Sci 1975. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(75)84596-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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27
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Wilson GA, Wheelock JV, Kirk A. The effect of reduction and alkylation on the primary phase of rennin action on unheated and heated milk. J DAIRY RES 1974; 41:37-44. [PMID: 4616974 DOI: 10.1017/s0022029900014898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
SummaryThe effects of cystine-reducing and sulphydryl-alkylating agents on the extent of the primary phase of rennin action on unheated and heated milk samples were studied. Alkylating agents alone had a negligible effect, but heated samples, reduced with tri-n-butyl phosphine prior to alkylation with a mono-functional agent (sodium iodoacetate) did not show the usual inhibition of the primary phase. Heated samples, reduced and alkylated with a bi-functional agent (ethylene dibromide) which can re-cross-link the broken disulphide bonds, however, did give the normal inhibition. These results suggest that effects on the primary phase due to heat treatment of milk are determined to a large extent by rearrangement of the disulphide cross-links, and if these are permanently broken, heat appears to have little effect.The results differ in some important respects from those obtained on the complex formed between isolated β-lactoglobulin and isolated κ-casein, and therefore throw doubt on the generally held view that there is a similar type of interaction in whole milk.
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Creamer LK, Wheelock JV, Samuel D. The distribution of glyco-kappa-casein and carbohydrate-free kappa-casein between large and small bovine casein micelles, and its implication in micelle structure. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1973; 317:202-6. [PMID: 4737383 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2795(73)90213-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Abdel-Fattah AF, el-Hawwary NM. Action of some metal ions, EDTA, and heated milk on the milk-clotting process of Penicillium citrinum rennin-like enzyme. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ALLGEMEINE MIKROBIOLOGIE 1973; 13:373-9. [PMID: 4203564 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3630130502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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