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Bruno D, Montali A, Mastore M, Brivio MF, Mohamed A, Tian L, Grimaldi A, Casartelli M, Tettamanti G. Insights Into the Immune Response of the Black Soldier Fly Larvae to Bacteria. Front Immunol 2021; 12:745160. [PMID: 34867970 PMCID: PMC8636706 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.745160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In insects, a complex and effective immune system that can be rapidly activated by a plethora of stimuli has evolved. Although the main cellular and humoral mechanisms and their activation pathways are highly conserved across insects, the timing and the efficacy of triggered immune responses can differ among different species. In this scenario, an insect deserving particular attention is the black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Indeed, BSF larvae can be reared on a wide range of decaying organic substrates and, thanks to their high protein and lipid content, they represent a valuable source of macromolecules useful for different applications (e.g., production of feedstuff, bioplastics, and biodiesel), thus contributing to the development of circular economy supply chains for waste valorization. However, decaying substrates bring the larvae into contact with different potential pathogens that can challenge their health status and growth. Although these life strategies have presumably contributed to shape the evolution of a sophisticated and efficient immune system in this dipteran, knowledge about its functional features is still fragmentary. In the present study, we investigated the processes underpinning the immune response to bacteria in H. illucens larvae and characterized their reaction times. Our data demonstrate that the cellular and humoral responses in this insect show different kinetics: phagocytosis and encapsulation are rapidly triggered after the immune challenge, while the humoral components intervene later. Moreover, although both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are completely removed from the insect body within a few hours after injection, Gram-positive bacteria persist in the hemolymph longer than do Gram-negative bacteria. Finally, the activity of two key actors of the humoral response, i.e., lysozyme and phenoloxidase, show unusual dynamics as compared to other insects. This study represents the first detailed characterization of the immune response to bacteria of H. illucens larvae, expanding knowledge on the defense mechanisms of this insect among Diptera. This information is a prerequisite to manipulating the larval immune response by nutritional and environmental factors to increase resistance to pathogens and optimize health status during mass rearing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Bruno
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Aurora Montali
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Maristella Mastore
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Maurizio Francesco Brivio
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Amr Mohamed
- Laboratory of Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Sciences, Department of Entomology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Ling Tian
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, Guangdong Provincial Sericulture and Mulberry Engineering Research Center, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Annalisa Grimaldi
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Morena Casartelli
- Laboratory of Insect Physiology and Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, University of Milano, Milan, Italy.,Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Center), University of Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Gianluca Tettamanti
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy.,Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Center), University of Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy
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Rocha A, Zhou Y, Kundu S, González JM, BradleighVinson S, Liang H. In vivo observation of gold nanoparticles in the central nervous system of Blaberus discoidalis. J Nanobiotechnology 2011; 9:5. [PMID: 21332995 PMCID: PMC3050800 DOI: 10.1186/1477-3155-9-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2010] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Nanoparticles (NPs) are widely studied for biomedical applications. Understanding interactions between NPs and biomolecules or cells has yet to be achieved. Here we present a novel in vivo method to study interactions between NPs and the nervous system of the discoid or false dead-head roach, Blaberus discoidalis. The aims of this study were to present a new and effective method to observe NPs in vivo that opens the door to new methods of study to observe the interactions between NPs and biological systems and to present an inexpensive and easy-to-handle biological system. Results Negatively charged gold nanoparticles (nAuNPs) of 50 nm in diameter were injected into the central nervous system (CNS) of the insect. By using such a cost effective method, we were able to characterize nAuNPs and to analyze their interactions with a biological system. It showed that the charged particles affected the insect's locomotion. The nAuNPs affected the insect's behavior but had no major impacts on the life expectancy of the cockroach after two months of observation. This was apparently due to the encapsulation of nAuNPs inside the insect's brain. Based on cockroach's daily activity, we believed that the encapsulation occurred in the first 17 days. Conclusions The method proposed here is an inexpensive and reliable way of observing the response of biological systems to nanoparticles in-vivo. It opens new windows to further understand how nanoparticles affect neural communication by monitoring insect activity and locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aracely Rocha
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
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3
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Mahmoud A, De Luna-Santillana E, Rodríguez-Perez M. Parasitism by the endoparasitoid, Cotesia flavipes induces cellular immunosuppression and enhances susceptibility of the sugar cane borer, Diatraea saccharalis to Bacillus thuringiensis. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2011; 11:119. [PMID: 22225507 PMCID: PMC3281321 DOI: 10.1673/031.011.11901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), is a gregarious larval endoparasitoid of the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). The aim of this research was to analyze cellular immunosuppression of D. saccharalis parasitized by C. flavipes in terms of encapsulation, melanization, and hemocyte nodule formation. The encapsulation assay was done 1 and 6 days after parasitoid oviposition. In addition, the susceptibility of parasitized and nonparasitzed larvae to Bacillus thuringiensis HD 73 strain was assessed. 3, 12, and 24 h after bead injection; the percentages of encapsulation were significantly higher in unparasitized larvae compared to larvae parasitized 1 and 6 days after oviposition. Interestingly, there was a significant reduction in numbers of beads encapsulated at 1 day after oviposition compared to 6 days, and unparasitized larvae. The percentage of melanized beads decreased significantly in parasitized larvae compared to control. There was a reduction in the number of nodules in parasitized larvae compared to unparasitized controls. Larvae that were injected with polyndavirus 24 h before beads were injected showed significantly reduced encapsulation responses relative to control larvae. The D. saccharalis parasitized by C. flavipes exhibited higher susceptibility to B. thuringiensis. These results suggest that parasitization induced host immunosuppression, and the immunosuppression factors could impair the defense capacity against microbial pathogens--causing an increase in pathogen susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.M.A. Mahmoud
- Centro de Biotecnologia Genomica (CBG), Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Mexico and Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada (CICATA) (Unidad Altamira), Mexico
| | - E.J. De Luna-Santillana
- Centro de Biotecnologia Genomica (CBG), Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Mexico and Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada (CICATA) (Unidad Altamira), Mexico
| | - M.A. Rodríguez-Perez
- Centro de Biotecnologia Genomica (CBG), Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Mexico and Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada (CICATA) (Unidad Altamira), Mexico
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Wootton EC, Dyrynda EA, Ratcliffe NA. Interaction between non-specific electrostatic forces and humoral factors in haemocyte attachment and encapsulation in the edible cockle, Cerastoderma edule. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 209:1326-35. [PMID: 16547303 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.02118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In invertebrates, encapsulation is the common immune defence reaction towards foreign bodies, including multicellular parasites, which enter the haemocoel and are too large to be phagocytosed. This immune response has been most extensively studied in insects, in which it is highly complex, involving a diversity of cellular and molecular processes, but little is known of this process in bivalve molluscs. Non-specific physicochemical properties are known to influence parasite-haemocyte interactions in many invertebrates, and these may provide the common basis of encapsulation on which highly specific biochemical interactions are imposed. The present study uses synthetic beads and thread to mimic inactive metacercarial cysts of trematodes, and thus investigates factors involved in the basic, non-specific mechanisms of cell attachment and encapsulation in the edible cockle, Cerastoderma edule. Results showed that positively charged targets stimulated the most vigorous response, and further detailed experiments revealed that non-specific electrostatic forces and humoral plasma factors have a synergistic role in haemocyte attachment and the encapsulation response of C. edule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma C Wootton
- School of Environment and Society, University of Wales Swansea, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK.
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Consoli FL, Vinson SB. Host regulation and the embryonic development of the endoparasitoid Toxoneuron nigriceps (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2004; 137:463-73. [PMID: 15081998 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2004.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2003] [Revised: 12/15/2003] [Accepted: 01/06/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Insect endoparasitoids modulate the host physiology through the injection of maternal-derived substances into the host, inducing physiological and hormonal changes in the host's internal environment to benefit parasitoid development. These changes are direct to control host development and regulate nutrient availability to the developing parasitoid, and they are synchronized with parasitoid development. Eggs of some of these parasitoids have low yolk content and require nutrients from the host hemolymph to initiate and complete embryogenesis. We report changes in the amino acid composition and protein profile of the host hemolymph of the endoparasitoid Toxoneuron nigriceps, and improved the in vitro culture of pre-germ band stage eggs. The protein profile of parasitized larvae was similar to controls throughout the embryonic development, but total amino acid concentration decreased in the first 2 h after parasitization, significantly increasing in the following hours up to 8 h. Amino acid levels were higher in parasitized larvae from 16 to 28 h after parasitization. Comparison of single amino acids indicated amino acids involved in energy metabolism (Krebs cycle) followed a trend during parasitoid embryogenesis, and their changes were correlated with embryonic development. Improvement in the in vitro development of 6 h-old eggs of T. nigriceps was obtained by adding factors released by the host fat body to the artificial medium, while a cell lysate stimulated embryogenesis and allowed the full development of newly laid eggs in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando L Consoli
- Department of Entomology, ERL, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA.
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6
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Lavine MD, Strand MR. Insect hemocytes and their role in immunity. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2002; 32:1295-1309. [PMID: 12225920 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(02)00092-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 946] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The innate immune system of insects is divided into humoral and cellular defense responses. Humoral defenses include antimicrobial peptides, the cascades that regulate coagulation and melanization of hemolymph, and the production of reactive intermediates of oxygen and nitrogen. Cellular defenses refer to hemocyte-mediated responses like phagocytosis and encapsulation. In this review, we discuss the cellular immune responses of insects with emphasis on studies in Lepidoptera and Diptera. Insect hemocytes originate from mesodermally derived stem cells that differentiate into specific lineages identified by morphology, function, and molecular markers. In Lepidoptera, most cellular defense responses involve granular cells and plasmatocytes, whereas in Drosophila they involve primarily plasmatocytes and lamellocytes. Insect hemocytes recognize a variety of foreign targets as well as alterations to self. Both humoral and cell surface receptors are involved in these recognition events. Once a target is recognized as foreign, hemocyte-mediated defense responses are regulated by signaling factors and effector molecules that control cell adhesion and cytotoxicity. Several lines of evidence indicate that humoral and cellular defense responses are well-coordinated with one another. Cross-talk between the immune and nervous system may also play a role in regulating inflammation-like responses in insects during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Lavine
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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7
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Paskewitz SM, Schwartz AM, Gorman MJ. The role of surface characteristics in eliciting humoral encapsulation of foreign bodies in Plasmodium-refractory and -susceptible strains of Anopheles gambiae. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 1998; 44:947-954. [PMID: 12770431 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1910(98)00056-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A refractory strain of the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, melanotically encapsulates and kills many species of malaria parasites, whereas susceptible strains allow the parasites to develop normally. To study the role of surface characteristics in eliciting this immune response, 27 types of chromatography beads that differed in matrix type, charge, functional group, and functional group density were assayed for degree of melanotic encapsulation in refractory and susceptible mosquitoes. Overall, two glucan-based matrices, Sephadex (dextran) and cellulose, stimulated the strongest responses, regardless of functional group. Substituting matrix hydroxyl groups with functional groups on Sephadex and cellulose beads decreased the level of encapsulation. These results demonstrate that glucans induce melanotic encapsulation in An. gambiae. Beads with agarose, polystyrene, and acrylic matrices, and most methacrylate-based beads elicited little or no melanization; however, epoxide-methacrylate beads were encapsulated, demonstrating that glucans are not essential for eliciting a response. Comparisons between the two strains demonstrated that refractory mosquitoes melanized many bead types to a greater degree than did susceptible mosquitoes. On this basis, we propose that an important difference between the two strains is that one of the enzymes involved in the melanization pathway functions at a higher level in the refractory strain. Finally, of all beads tested, only 85% substituted CM-Sephadex beads were virtually unmelanized in susceptible mosquitoes but highly melanized in the refractory strain; thus, a specific surface microenvironment is necessary to demonstrate this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M. Paskewitz
- Department of Entomology, 237 Russell Labs, University of Wisconsin, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, USA
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8
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Eslin P, Giordanengo P, Fourdrain Y, Prévost G. Avoidance of encapsulation in the absence of VLP by a braconid parasitoid of Drosophila larvae: an ultrastructural study. CAN J ZOOL 1996. [DOI: 10.1139/z96-248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The hymenopteran Asobara tabida Nees (Braconidae: Alysiinae) parasitizes the larval stages of Drosophila species. In D. melanogaster, 90% of A. tabida eggs avoid encapsulation and are found embedded within the tissues (digestive tube, fat body, tracheae, etc.) of their larval host. Electron microscopy was used to investigate if the embedment of the parasitic egg within the tissues of its host may prevent encapsulation. Study revealed that the outer layer of the A. tabida egg consists of a fibrous exochorion that exhibits adhesive properties within the tissues of D. melanogaster. Three hours after oviposition, any basement membrane surrounding the host tissues that is in contact with the parasitic egg is stuck to the exochorion. Attachment rapidly increases. Nine hours post oviposition, the A. tabida egg is almost totally surrounded by a sheath of host tissue, with only limited areas of the surface remaining uncovered and exposed to attack by the host hemocytes. It is therefore concluded that the adhesion of A. tabida eggs to the host tissues is likely to contribute to their protection from encapsulation during embryogenesis. Also, electron microscopy reveals that no virus-like particles occur in A. tabida, unlike any other braconid parasitoid studied. The absence of virus-like particles is discussed with regard to the importance of host regulation of the particles in other braconid species.
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9
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Lavine MD, Beckage NE. Polydnaviruses: potent mediators of host insect immune dysfunction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995; 11:368-78. [PMID: 15275399 DOI: 10.1016/0169-4758(95)80005-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Endoparasitic insects are used as biological control agents to kill many species of insect pest. One key to the success of parasitoids that develop in the hemocoel of their host is their ability to knock out the host's immune system, inducing a decline in the responsiveness of a variety of cellular and humoral components so that parasitoid eggs are not encapsulated. In many species parasitized by braconid and ichneumonid wasps, host immunosuppression appears to be mediated by polydnaviruses (PDVs) injected by the female parasitoid into the host hemocoel. The viruses exhibit a complex and intimate genetic relationship with the wasp, since viral sequences are integrated within the wasp's chromosomal DNA. Here Mark Lavine and Nancy Beckage summarize the current evidence for mechanisms of virally induced host immunosuppression in parasitized insects, as well as the roles of other factors including wasp ovarian proteins and venom components, in suppressing hemocyte-mediated and humoral immune responses. Interestingly, in some species, the PDV-induced host immunosuppression appears transitory, with older parasitoid larvae probably exploiting other mechanisms to protect themselves from the host's immune system during the final stages of parasitism. During the final stages of parasitism, the parasitoids likely exploit other mechanisms of immunoevasion via antigen masking, antigen mimicry, or production of active inhibitors of the hemocyte-mediated encapsulation response as well as inhibiting melanization.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Lavine
- Department of Biology, University of California-Riverside, 92521-0314, USA
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10
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Nayar JK, Bradley TJ. Comparative study of hemolymph phenoloxidase activity in Aedes aegypti and Anopheles quadrimaculatus and its role in encapsulation of Brugia malayi microfilariae. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. PART A, PHYSIOLOGY 1994; 109:929-38. [PMID: 7828033 DOI: 10.1016/0300-9629(94)90241-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Hemolymph phenoloxidase activity of sugar-fed and blood-fed females of Anopheles quadrimaculatus and Aedes aegypti showed similar characteristics. Phenoloxidase was present as an inactive proenzyme in both mosquito species and was partially activated during collection of the hemolymph. In both mosquito species, phenoloxidase activity was modulated by different buffers and activated phenoloxidase did not need Ca2+. Enzymatic activity was higher in the hemocytes than in the plasma in both mosquito species. Trypsin, laminarin, and blood-feeding on uninfected and Brugia malayi-infected jirds enhanced hemolymph phenoloxidase activity in both mosquito species. The appearance of hemolymph phenoloxidase activity was inhibited by p-nitrophenyl p'-guanidinobenzoate HCl, soybean trypsin inhibitor, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, diethyldithiocarbamic acid, saturated 1-phenyl-2-thiourea and reduced glutathione, but not by benzamidine in A. quadrimaculatus. The appearance of hemolymph phenoloxidase activity was inhibited by benzamidine, diethyldithiocarbamic acid, saturated 1-phenyl-2-thiourea, reduced glutathione, p-nitrophenyl p'-guanidinobenzoate and soybean trypsin inhibitor, but not by ethylenediamine-tetraacetic acid in A. aegypti. It is suggested that in both mosquito species, blood-feeding and migration of sheathed microfilariae in the homocoel activated the prophenoloxidase in the hemolymph and caused the encapsulation and melanization of microfilarial sheaths and microfilariae of B. malayi.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Nayar
- Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, IFAS, University of Florida, Vero Beach 32962
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TAKAHASHI SOHJI, ENOMOTO GINKO. Scanning Electron Microscopic Study of the Initial Phase of Encapsulation in Samia cynthia ricini. (encapsulation/haemocyte lysis/plasma coagulation/Samia silkmoth). Dev Growth Differ 1987. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-169x.1987.00249.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Chen CC, Laurence BR. In vitro study on humoral encapsulation of microfilariae: establishment of technique and description of reactions. Int J Parasitol 1987; 17:781-7. [PMID: 3570644 DOI: 10.1016/0020-7519(87)90059-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Davies D, Burghardt R, Vinson S. Oogenesis of Cardiochiles nigriceps viereck (Hymenoptera : Braconidae): Histochemistry and development of the chorion with special reference to the fibrous layer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-7322(86)90030-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Thompson SN. Metabolic integration during the host associations of multicellular animal endoparasites. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. B, COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1985; 81:21-42. [PMID: 3893873 DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(85)90157-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The nature of metabolic interaction during parasitic infection was discussed and the concept of metabolic integration outlined. The subjective nature of the integrative argument was noted. The parasite-host relationships of larval trematodes of the genus Schistosoma with their intermediate molluscan hosts, the nematode Trichnella spiralis and cestode Hymenolepis diminuta, with their definitive hosts, as well as the hymenopterous insect parasite, Hyposoter exiguae, with its insect host, Trichoplusia ni, were examined. The significance of the immune system in the establishment of the parasite-host association and the means by which parasites evade host defense were discussed. The involvement of microorganisms or "hyperparasites" during the host associations of multicellular parasites was described. The importance of evolutionary considerations in assessing the nature of metabolic interaction and its significance to the success of the parasite-host relationship was emphasized. The use of teleological assessment and anthropomorphic description was discussed.
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Effect of the venom of the gregarious parasitoid Apanteles glomeratus on its hemocytic encapsulation by the host, Pieris. J Invertebr Pathol 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-2011(82)90037-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Dunphy GB, Nolan RA. Response of eastern hemlock looper hemocytes to selected stages of Entomophthora egressa and other foreign particles. J Invertebr Pathol 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-2011(80)90138-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Krell PJ, Stoltz DB. Unusual Baculovirus of the Parasitoid Wasp
Apanteles melanoscelus
: Isolation and Preliminary Characterization. J Virol 1979; 29:1118-30. [PMID: 16789176 PMCID: PMC353272 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.29.3.1118-1130.1979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A baculovirus present in the female reproductive tract of the parasitoid wasp
Apanteles melanoscelus
has been isolated and partially characterized. Viral DNA is double stranded, circular, and of highly variable molecular weight ranging from 2 × 10
6
to 25 × 10
6
; the DNA is of homogeneous density at ρ = 1.694 g/ml. Acrylamide gels resolve 18 polypeptide bands in the case of purified virions; four to five of these appear in a semipurified nucleocapsid preparation. The electrophoretic profiles obtained are compared with those of two other baculoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Krell
- Department of Microbiology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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23
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Lynn DC, Vinson S. Effects of temperature, host age, and hormones upon the encapsulation of Cardiochiles nigriceps eggs by Heliothis spp. J Invertebr Pathol 1977. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-2011(77)90171-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Ratcliffe NA, Gagen SJ. Studies on the in vivo cellular reactions of insects: an ultrastructural analysis of nodule formation in Galleria mellonella. Tissue Cell 1977; 9:73-85. [PMID: 408940 DOI: 10.1016/0040-8166(77)90050-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cellular aggregates or nodules which formed in Galleria mellonella larvae in response to injections of killed Bacillus cereus were examined during their first 24 hr of development. The initial aggregation stage was very rapid, occurring within 1 min, and was brought about by the release of an adhesive flocculent material by granular haemocytes in contact with the bacteria. This material, which subsequently became increasingly electron dense owing to melanin deposition, consolidated and by 5 min ramified all the intercellular spaces. The granular cells degenerated, releasing portions of cytoplasm form their peripheries, and eventurally appeared in the matrix as voids containing loosely flocculent material. No bacterial breakdown was seen, however. From 2-4 hr, plasmatocytes began to encapsulate the necrotic mass, and by 24 hr a complete sheath, composed of three discrete regions of cells, was formed. These findings are discussed in relation to the various proposed mechanisms of nodule and capsule formation.
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Lackie AM. Evasion of the haemocytic defence reaction of certain insects by larvae of Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda). Parasitology 1976; 73:97-107. [PMID: 967532 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000051362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Larvae of Hymenolepis diminuta develop in the haemocoele of the beetles Tribolium and Tenebrio, and of the locust Schistocerca gregaria, without being encapsulated by haemocytes. The mechanism of this evasion of the haemocytic defence reaction has been examined using various techniques. Larvae grown in culture and injected into S. gregaria have a few or no haemocytes adherent even after 8h, although latex beads injected at the same time have been thickly encapsulated. This, and results of transplanting cysticercoids and host tissue between different insect species, suggests that the surface of the larvae may bear an inherent similarity to the surface of host tissues and thus escape recognition as 'not-self' by the host's haemocytes.
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