Biological, ultrastructural effect and subcellular localization of aromatic diamidines in Trypanosoma cruzi

Amidine containing compounds: Antimicrobial activity and its potential in combating antimicrobial resistance

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing and concerning threat to global public health, necessitating innovative strategies to combat this crisis. Amidine-containing compounds have emerged as promising agents in the battle against AMR. This review gives a summary of recent advances from the past decade in studies of antimicrobial amidine-containing compounds with the aim to feature their structural diversity and the pharmacological relevance of the moiety to antimicrobial activity and their potential use in combating antimicrobial resistance, to the greatest extent possible. Highlighting is put on chemical structure of such compounds in relation to antimicrobial activities such as antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic activities. Researchers commonly modify molecules containing amidine or incorporate amidine into existing antimicrobial agents to enhance their pharmacological attributes and combat antimicrobial resistance. This comprehensive review consolidates the current knowledge on amidine-containing compounds, elucidating their antimicrobial mechanisms and highlighting their promise in addressing the global AMR crisis. By offering a multidisciplinary perspective, we aim to inspire further research and innovation in this critical area of antimicrobial research.

Revisiting Pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine Nucleosides as Anti-Trypanosoma cruzi and Antileishmanial Agents

Chagas disease and visceral leishmaniasis are two neglected tropical diseases responsible for numerous deaths around the world. For both, current treatments are largely inadequate, resulting in a continued need for new drug discovery. As both kinetoplastid parasites are incapable of de novo purine synthesis, they depend on purine salvage pathways that allow them to acquire and process purines from the host to meet their demands. Purine nucleoside analogues therefore constitute a logical source of potential antiparasitic agents. Earlier optimization efforts of the natural product tubercidin (7-deazaadenosine) involving modifications to the nucleobase 7-position and the ribofuranose 3'-position led to analogues with potent anti-Trypanosoma brucei and anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activities. In this work, we report the design and synthesis of pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine nucleosides with 3'- and 7-modifications and assess their potential as anti-Trypanosoma cruzi and antileishmanial agents. One compound was selected for in vivo evaluation in an acute Chagas disease mouse model.

Chagas Disease Chemotherapy: What Do We Know So Far?

Chagas disease is a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD), and although endemic in Latin America, affects around 6-7 million people infected worldwide. The treatment of Chagas disease is based on benznidazole and nifurtimox, which are the only available drugs. However, they are not effective during the chronic phase and cause several side effects. Furthermore, BZ promotes cure in 80% of the patients in the acute phase, but the cure rate drops to 20% in adults in the chronic phase of the disease. In this review, we present several studies published in the last six years, which describes the antiparasitic potential of distinct drugs, from the synthesis of new compounds aiming to target the parasite, as well as the repositioning and the combination of drugs. We highlight several compounds for having shown results that are equivalent or superior to BZ, which means that they should be further studied, either in vitro or in vivo. Furthermore, we stand out the differences in the effects of BZ on the same strain of T. cruzi, which might be related to methodological differences such as parasite and cell ratios, host cell type and the time of adding the drug. In addition, we discuss the wide variety of strains and also the cell types used as a host cell, which makes it difficult to compare the trypanocidal effect of the compounds.

A water-soluble bithiophene with increased photoluminescence efficiency and metal recognition ability

A new water-soluble tri-tert-butyl-bithiophenesulfonamide (α2-tbS) was synthesized and a comprehensive spectroscopic and photophysical study was undertaken in organic solvents and water at different pH values. In contrast to the behaviour found for the parent (and un-substituted) α,α'-bithiophene (α2), in which radiationless decay processes are the main excited-state deactivation channels, the tert-butylsulfonamide derivative presents a significant fluorescence quantum yield (φF) (ca. one order of magnitude higher than that of α2). The high φF allowed further exploring α2-tbS as a selective fluorimetric sensor for metal ions. A strong selectivity towards Cu(ii) is observed at neutral pH values, whereas at pH = 9.5 a strong quenching upon the addition of Hg(ii) is observed. An additional high sensitivity of 0.64 ± 0.02 ppm towards Cu(ii) was observed, well below 1.25 ppm (∼20 μM), the maximum value allowed in drinking water by the EPA.

In Vitro and In Vivo Studies of the Trypanocidal Effect of Novel Quinolines

Therapies for human African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi, respectively, are limited, providing minimal therapeutic options for the millions of individuals living in very poor communities. Here the effects of 10 novel quinolines are evaluated in silico and by phenotypic studies using in vitro and in vivo models. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) properties revealed that most molecules did not infringe on Lipinski's rules, which is a prediction of good oral absorption. These quinolines showed high probabilities of Caco2 permeability and human intestinal absorption and low probabilities of mutagenicity and of hERG1 inhibition. In vitro screens against bloodstream forms of T. cruzi demonstrated that all quinolines were more active than the reference drug (benznidazole [Bz]), except for DB2171 and DB2192, with five (DB2187, DB2131, DB2186, DB2191, and DB2217) displaying 50% effective concentrations (EC₅₀s) of <3 μM (4-fold lower than that of Bz). Nine quinolines were more effective than Bz (2.7 μM) against amastigotes, showing EC₅₀s ranging from 0.6 to 0.1 μM. All quinolines were also highly active in vitro against African trypanosomes, showing EC₅₀s of ≤0.25 μM. The most potent and highly selective candidates for each parasite species were tested in in vivo models. Results for DB2186 were promising in mice with T. cruzi and T. brucei infections, reaching a 70% reduction of the parasitemia load for T. cruzi, and it cured 2 out of 4 mice infected with T. brucei DB2217 was also active in vivo and cured all 4 mice (100% cure rate) with T. brucei infection.

Ultrastructural and physiological changes induced by different stress conditions on the human parasite Trypanosoma cruzi

Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease. The life cycle of this protozoan parasite is digenetic because it alternates its different developmental forms through two hosts, a vector insect and a vertebrate host. As a result, the parasites are exposed to sudden and drastic environmental changes causing cellular stress. The stress response to some types of stress has been studied in T. cruzi, mainly at the molecular level; however, data about ultrastructure and physiological state of the cells in stress conditions are scarce or null. In this work, we analyzed the morphological, ultrastructural, and physiological changes produced on T. cruzi epimastigotes when they were exposed to acid, nutritional, heat, and oxidative stress. Clear morphological changes were observed, but the physiological conditions varied depending on the type of stress. The maintenance of the physiological state was severely affected by heat shock, acidic, nutritional, and oxidative stress. According to the surprising observed growth recovery after damage by stress alterations, different adaptations from the parasite to these harsh conditions were suggested. Particular cellular death pathways are discussed.

Interactions between 4-aminoquinoline and heme: Promising mechanism against Trypanosoma cruzi

Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease caused by the flagellated protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. The current drugs used to treat this disease have limited efficacy and produce severe side effects. Quinolines, nitrogen heterocycle compounds that form complexes with heme, have a broad spectrum of antiprotozoal activity and are a promising class of new compounds for Chagas disease chemotherapy. In this study, we evaluated the activity of a series of 4-arylaminoquinoline-3-carbonitrile derivatives against all forms of Trypanosoma cruzi in vitro. Compound 1g showed promising activity against epimastigote forms when combined with hemin (IC50<1 μM), with better performance than benznidazole, the reference drug. This compound also inhibited the viability of trypomastigotes and intracellular amastigotes. The potency of 1g in combination with heme was enhanced against epimastigotes and trypomastigotes, suggesting a similar mechanism of action that occurs in Plasmodium spp. The addition of hemin to the culture medium increased trypanocidal activity of analog 1g without changing the cytotoxicity of the host cell, reaching an IC50 of 11.7 μM for trypomastigotes. The mechanism of action was demonstrated by the interaction of compound 1g with hemin in solution and prevention of heme peroxidation. Compound 1g and heme treatment induced alterations of the mitochondrion-kinetoplast complex in epimastigotes and trypomastigotes and also, accumulation of electron-dense deposits in amastigotes as visualized by transmission electron microscopy. The trypanocidal activity of 4-aminoquinolines and the elucidation of the mechanism involving interaction with heme is a neglected field of research, given the parasite's lack of heme biosynthetic pathway and the importance of this cofactor for parasite survival and growth. The results of this study can improve and guide rational drug development and combination treatment strategies.

Norfloxacin and N-Donor Mixed-Ligand Copper(II) Complexes: Synthesis, Albumin Interaction, and Anti-Trypanosoma cruzi Activity

Copper(II) complexes with the first-generation quinolone antibacterial agent norfloxacin containing a nitrogen donor heterocyclic ligand 2,2'-bipyridine (bipy) or 1,10-phenanthroline (phen) were prepared and characterized by IR, EPR spectra, molar conductivity, and elemental analyses. The experimental data suggest that norfloxacin was coordinated to copper(II) through the carboxylato and ketone oxygen atoms. The interaction of the copper(II) complexes with bovine serum albumin (BSA) and human serum albumin (HSA) was investigated using fluorescence quenching of the tryptophan residues and copper(II) EPR spectroscopy. The results of fluorescence titration revealed that copper(II) complexes have a moderate ability to quench the intrinsic fluorescence of the albumins through a static quenching mechanism. EPR experiments showed that BSA and HSA Cu(II) sites compete with NOR for Cu(II)-bipy and Cu(II)-phen to form protein mixed-ligand complexes. Copper(II) complexes, together with the corresponding ligands, were evaluated for their trypanocidal activity in vitro against Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. The tests performed using bloodstream trypomastigotes showed that the Cu(II)-N-donor precursors and the metal complexes were more active than the free fluoroquinolone.

Hydroxamic acid derivatives: a promising scaffold for rational compound optimization in Chagas disease

This work describes the antitrypanocidal activity of two hydroxamic acid derivatives containing o-ethoxy (HAD1) and p-ethoxy (HAD2) as substituent in the aromatic ring linked to the isoxazoline ring. HAD1 and HAD2 induced a significant reduction in the number of intracellular parasites and consequently showed activity on the multiplication of the parasite. Treatment of cardiomyocytes and macrophages with the compounds revealed no significant loss in cell viability. Ultrastructural alterations after treatment of cardiomyocytes or macrophages infected by Trypanosoma cruzi with the IC50 value of HAD1 revealed alterations to amastigotes, showing initial damage seen as swelling of the kinetoplast. This gave a good indication of the ability of the drug to permeate through the host cell membrane as well as its selectivity to the parasite target. Both compounds HAD1 and 2 were able to reduce the cysteine peptidases and decrease the activity of metallopeptidases.

Anticancer, antioxidant activities, and DNA affinity of novel monocationic bithiophenes and analogues

A series of 15 monocationic bithiophenes and isosteres were prepared and subjected to in vitro antiproliferative screening using the full National Cancer Institute (NCI)-60 cell line panel, representing nine types of cancer. Among the nine types of cancer involved in a five-dose screen, non-small cell lung and breast cancer cell lines were the most responsive to the antiproliferative effect of the tested compounds, especially cell lines A549/ATCC, NCI-H322M, and NCI-H460, whereas compounds 1a, 1c, 1d, and 7 exhibited potent activity, with GI50 values (drug concentration that causes 50% inhibition of cell growth) from less than 10 nM to 102 nM. In addition, compounds 1c and 1d gave GI50 values of 73 nM and 79 nM, respectively, against the MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cell line. Structure-activity relationship findings indicated that the mononitriles were far less active than their corresponding monoamidines and, within the amidines series, the bioisosteric replacement of a thiophene ring by a furan led to a reduction in antiproliferative activity. Also, molecular manipulations, involving substitution on the phenyl ring, or its replacement by a pyridyl, or alteration of the position of the amidine group, led to significant alteration in antiproliferative activity. On the other hand, DNA studies demonstrated that these monoamidine bichalcophenes have promising ability to cleave the genomic DNA. These monoamidines show a wide range of DNA affinities, as judged from their DNA cleavage effect, which are remarkably sensitive to all kinds of structural modifications. Finally, the novel bichalcophenes were tested for their antioxidant property by the ABTS (2,2'-azino- bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt) assay, as well as lipid and nitric oxide scavenging techniques, and were found to exhibit good-to-potent antioxidant abilities.

Pentamidine exerts in vitro and in vivo anti Trypanosoma cruzi activity and inhibits the polyamine transport in Trypanosoma cruzi

Pentamidine is an antiprotozoal and fungicide drug used in the treatment of leishmaniasis and African trypanosomiasis. Despite its extensive use as antiparasitic drug, little evidence exists about the effect of pentamidine in Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas' disease. Recent studies have shown that pentamidine blocks a polyamine transporter present in Leishmania major; consequently, its might also block these transporters in T. cruzi. Considering that T. cruzi lacks the ability to synthesize putrescine de novo, the inhibition of polyamine transport can bring a new therapeutic target against the parasite. In this work, we show that pentamidine decreases, not only the viability of T. cruzi trypomastigotes, but also the parasite burden of infected cells. In T. cruzi-infected mice pentamidine decreases the inflammation and parasite burden in hearts from infected mice. The treatment also decreases parasitemia, resulting in an increased survival rate. In addition, pentamidine strongly inhibits the putrescine and spermidine transport in T. cruzi epimastigotes and amastigotes. Thus, this study points to reevaluate the utility of pentamidine and introduce evidence of a potential new action mechanism. In the quest of new therapeutic strategies against Chagas disease, the extensive use of pentamidine in human has led to a well-known clinical profile, which could be an advantage over newly synthesized molecules that require more comprehensive trials prior to their clinical use.

The expected outcome of the Trypanosoma cruzi proteomic map: a review of its potential biological applications for drug target discovery

Chagas disease is a neglected tropical illness endemic to Latin America, and its treatment remains unsatisfactory. This disease is caused by the hemoflagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, which has a complex life cycle involving three evolutive forms in both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Targeting metabolic pathways in the parasite for rational drug design represents a promising research field. This research area requires high performance techniques and proteomics become a powerful tool in this context. Here, we review advances in the construction of proteomic maps of the different forms of T. cruzi, emphasizing their biological applications towards the identification of alternative candidates for drug intervention.

Norfloxacin Zn(II)-based complexes: acid base ionization constant determination, DNA and albumin binding properties and the biological effect against Trypanosoma cruzi

Zn(II) complexes with norfloxacin (NOR) in the absence or in the presence of 1,10-phenanthroline (phen) were obtained and characterized. In both complexes, the ligand NOR was coordinated through a keto and a carboxyl oxygen. Tetrahedral and octahedral geometries were proposed for [ZnCl2(NOR)]·H2O (1) and [ZnCl2(NOR)(phen)]·2H2O (2), respectively. Since the biological activity of the chemicals depends on the pH value, pH titrations of the Zn(II) complexes were performed. UV spectroscopic studies of the interaction of the complexes with calf-thymus DNA (CT DNA) have suggested that they can bind to CT DNA with moderate affinity in an intercalative mode. The interactions between the Zn(II) complexes and bovine serum albumin (BSA) were investigated by steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy at pH 7.4. The experimental data showed static quenching of BSA fluorescence, indicating that both complexes bind to BSA. A modified Stern-Volmer plot for the quenching by complex 2 demonstrated preferential binding near one of the two tryptophan residues of BSA. The binding constants obtained (K b ) showed that BSA had a two orders of magnitude higher affinity for complex 2 than for 1. The results also showed that the affinity of both complexes for BSA was much higher than for DNA. This preferential interaction with protein sites could be important to their biological mechanisms of action. The analysis in vitro of the Zn(II) complexes and corresponding ligand were assayed against Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease and the data showed that complex 2 was the most active against bloodstream trypomastigotes.

Novel amidines and analogues as promising agents against intracellular parasites: a systematic review

Parasitic protozoa comprise diverse aetiological agents responsible for important diseases in humans and animals including sleeping sickness, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, malaria, toxoplasmosis and others. They are major causes of mortality and morbidity in tropical and subtropical countries, and are also responsible for important economic losses. However, up to now, for most of these parasitic diseases, effective vaccines are lacking and the approved chemotherapeutic compounds present high toxicity, increasing resistance, limited efficacy and require long periods of treatment. Many of these parasitic illnesses predominantly affect low-income populations of developing countries for which new pharmaceutical alternatives are urgently needed. Thus, very low research funding is available. Amidine-containing compounds such as pentamidine are DNA minor groove binders with a broad spectrum of activities against human and veterinary pathogens. Due to their promising microbicidal activity but their rather poor bioavailability and high toxicity, many analogues and derivatives, including pro-drugs, have been synthesized and screened in vitro and in vivo in order to improve their selectivity and pharmacological properties. This review summarizes the knowledge on amidines and analogues with respect to their synthesis, pharmacological profile, mechanistic and biological effects upon a range of intracellular protozoan parasites. The bulk of these data may contribute to the future design and structure optimization of new aromatic dicationic compounds as novel antiparasitic drug candidates.

Di-cationic arylimidamides act against Neospora caninum tachyzoites by interference in membrane structure and nucleolar integrity and are active against challenge infection in mice

Neospora caninum is considered to be the main cause of bovine abortion in Europe and the USA, leading to considerable financial impact. Losses are caused directly by abortions or indirectly through breeding of calves with impaired viability. Due to the lack of effective chemotherapy against bovine neosporosis, there is a need to develop new anti-protozoal compounds, which would either eliminate the parasite or avoid its transmission. In order to identify compounds of interest, the in vitro activities of 41 di-cationic pentamidine derivatives were studied employing a transgenic N. caninum clone expressing beta-galactosidase as a reporter gene. The arylimidamide DB745, previously shown to be highly active against Leishmania donovani in vitro and in vivo, appeared as the most promising compound, with an IC50 of 80 nM in 3-day growth assays and severely affecting both host cell invasion as well as intracellular proliferation. TEM of intracellular tachyzoites identified distinct alterations related to the nucleolus and the nuclear and cellular membrane. Long-term growth assays showed that DB745 acted parasiticidal upon the Nc-Liv isolate, but not against the Nc-1 isolate of N. caninum. In vivo studies in N. caninum (Nc-1 isolate) infected mice showed that daily intraperitoneal application of DB745 for a period of 14 days resulted in a decreased number of clinically affected animals, and lower cerebral parasite burdens in DB745-treated mice compared to non-treated mice. These results illustrate the potential of dicationic arylimidamides for the treatment of N. caninum infections.

The adaptive potential of a survival artist: characterization of the in vitro interactions of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites with di-cationic compounds in human fibroblast cell cultures

The impact of di-cationic pentamidine-analogues against Toxoplama gondii (Rh- and Me49-background) was investigated. The 72 h-growth assays showed that the arylimidamide DB750 inhibited the proliferation of tachyzoites of T. gondii Rh and T. gondii Me49 with an IC(50) of 0·11 and 0·13 μM, respectively. Pre-incubation of fibroblast monolayers with 1 μM DB750 for 12 h and subsequent culture in the absence of the drug also resulted in a pronounced inhibiton of parasite proliferation. However, upon 5-6 days of drug exposure, T. gondii tachyzoites adapted to the compound and resumed proliferation up to a concentration of 1·2 μM. Out of a set of 32 di-cationic compounds screened for in vitro activity against T. gondii, the arylimidamide DB745, exhibiting an IC(50) of 0·03 μM and favourable selective toxicity was chosen for further studies. DB745 also inhibited the proliferation of DB750-adapted T. gondii (IC(50)=0·07 μM). In contrast to DB750, DB745 also had a profound negative impact on extracellular non-adapted T. gondii tachyzoites, but not on DB750-adapted T. gondii. Adaptation of T. gondii to DB745 (up to a concentration of 0·46 μM) was much more difficult to achieve and feasible only over a period of 110 days. In cultures infected with DB750-adapted T. gondii seemingly intact parasites could occasionally be detected by TEM. This illustrates the astonishing capacity of T. gondii tachyzoites to adapt to environmental changes, at least under in vitro conditions, and suggests that DB745 could be an interesting drug candidate for further assessments in appropriate in vivo models.

Experimental Chemotherapy for Chagas Disease: A Morphological, Biochemical, and Proteomic Overview of Potential Trypanosoma cruzi Targets of Amidines Derivatives and Naphthoquinones

Chagas disease (CD), caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, affects approximately eight million individuals in Latin America and is emerging in nonendemic areas due to the globalisation of immigration and nonvectorial transmission routes. Although CD represents an important public health problem, resulting in high morbidity and considerable mortality rates, few investments have been allocated towards developing novel anti-T. cruzi agents. The available therapy for CD is based on two nitro derivatives (benznidazole (Bz) and nifurtimox (Nf)) developed more than four decades ago. Both are far from ideal due to substantial secondary side effects, limited efficacy against different parasite isolates, long-term therapy, and their well-known poor activity in the late chronic phase. These drawbacks justify the urgent need to identify better drugs to treat chagasic patients. Although several classes of natural and synthetic compounds have been reported to act in vitro and in vivo on T. cruzi, since the introduction of Bz and Nf, only a few drugs, such as allopurinol and a few sterol inhibitors, have moved to clinical trials. This reflects, at least in part, the absence of well-established universal protocols to screen and compare drug activity. In addition, a large number of in vitro studies have been conducted using only epimastigotes and trypomastigotes instead of evaluating compounds' activities against intracellular amastigotes, which are the reproductive forms in the vertebrate host and are thus an important determinant in the selection and identification of effective compounds for further in vivo analysis. In addition, due to pharmacokinetics and absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion characteristics, several compounds that were promising in vitro have not been as effective as Nf or Bz in animal models of T. cruzi infection. In the last two decades, our team has collaborated with different medicinal chemistry groups to develop preclinical studies for CD and investigate the in vitro and in vivo efficacy, toxicity, selectivity, and parasite targets of different classes of natural and synthetic compounds. Some of these results will be briefly presented, focusing primarily on diamidines and related compounds and naphthoquinone derivatives that showed the most promising efficacy against T. cruzi.

Advances in Chagas disease drug development: 2009-2010

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The need for better drugs to treat patients with Chagas disease remains urgent. This review summarizes the advancements in drug development over the past 2 years.

RECENT FINDINGS

Drug development efforts are almost exclusively occurring as preclinical research, although phase II studies for the antifungal drug, posaconazole, and a prodrug of ravuconazole are being planned. Several recent laboratory investigations demonstrate anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity of novel small molecules in animal models. These include nonpeptidic cruzain inhibitors, novel inhibitors of the sterol 14α-demethylase enzyme, new compounds (arylimidamides) related to pentamidine, derivatives of nifurtimox, compounds using ruthenium complexes, and several natural products. The recent implementation of a high-throughput screen of more than 300 000 compounds against intracellular T. cruzi amastigotes done at the Broad Institute is an important development, yielding approximately 300 selective inhibitors, many of which may serve as leads for medicinal chemistry efforts.

SUMMARY

Progress is slow, but recent advancements in both drug development and advocacy for research on neglected diseases are encouraging. Efforts to define a target product profile and to harmonize methodologies for testing drugs for Chagas disease are described herein.

Screening of Potential anti-Trypanosoma cruzi Candidates: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Chagas disease (CD), caused by the intracellular protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is a parasitic illness endemic in Latin America. In the centennial after CD discovery by Carlos Chagas (1909), although it still represents an important public health problem in these affected areas, the existing chemotherapy, based on benznidazole and nifurtimox (both introduced more than four decades ago), is far from being considered ideal due to substantial toxicity, variable effect on different parasite stocks and well-known poor activity on the chronic phase. CD is considered one of the major "neglected" diseases of the world, as commercial incentives are very limited to guarantee investments for developing and discovering novel drugs. In this context, our group has been pursuing, over the last years, the efficacy, selectivity, toxicity, cellular targets and mechanisms of action of new potential anti-T. cruzi candidates screened from an in-house compound library of different research groups in the area of medicinal chemistry. A brief review regarding these studies will be discussed, mainly related to the effect on T. cruzi of (i) diamidines and related compounds, (ii) natural naphthoquinone derivatives, and (iii) megazol derivatives.

SYNTHESIS OF NOVEL BITHIOPHENE-SUBSTITUTED HETEROCYCLES BEARING CARBONITRILE GROUPS

Symmetrical and unsymmetrical bithiophene-substituted heterocycles bearing carbonitriles including imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine, benzimidazole, and pyridine derivatives have been synthesized via different synthetic protocols. The bithiophene bis-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine derivatives 3a,b were achieved in three steps starting from 2-acetyl-5-bromothiophene. Suzuki coupling reaction of 2a with 5-formylthiophen-2-ylboronic acid forms the formyl derivative 5, which by condensation with 3,4-diaminobenzonitrile in the presence of sodium bisulfite furnishes the unsymmetrical bithiophene derivative 6. The bis-benzimidazole derivative 8 was obtained via hexabutylditin-mediated homocoupling of 5-bromothiophene-2-carboxaldehyde, while the benzimidazole derivatives 12a,b were prepared via the formyl derivatives 11a,b, a product of Velsmier formylation reaction of 10a,b. Two synthetic protocols for the aryl/hetaryl-2,2'-bithiophene derivative 14 have also been presented. In addition, the guanyl hydrazones of bithiophenes, 16 and 17, were prepared from bis(tri-n-butylstannyl)-2,2'-bithiophene through a Stille coupling reaction followed by a condensation step.

Trypanocidal activity and selectivity in vitro of aromatic amidine compounds upon bloodstream and intracellular forms of Trypanosoma cruzi

Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease, an important neglected illness affecting about 12-14 million people in endemic areas of Latin America. The chemotherapy of Chagas disease is quite unsatisfactory mainly due to its poor efficacy especially during the later chronic phase and the considerable well-known side effects. These facts emphasize the need to search for find new drugs. Diamidines and related compounds are minor groove binders of DNA at AT-rich sites and present excellent anti-trypanosomal activity. In the present study, six novel aromatic amidine compounds (arylimidamides and diamidines) were tested in vitro to determine activity against the infective and intracellular stages of T. cruzi, which are responsible for sustaining the infection in the mammalian hosts. In addition, their selectivity and toxicity towards primary cultures of cardiomyocyte were evaluated since these cells represent important targets of infection and inflammation in vivo. The aromatic amidines were active against T. cruzi in vitro, the arylimidamide DB1470 was the most effective compound presenting a submicromolar LD(50) values, good selectivity index, and good activity at 4 °C in the presence of blood constituents. Our results further justify trypanocidal screening assays with these classes of compounds both in vitro and in vivo in experimental models of T. cruzi infection.

Arylimidamide DB766, a potential chemotherapeutic candidate for Chagas' disease treatment

Chagas' disease, a neglected tropical illness for which current therapy is unsatisfactory, is caused by the intracellular parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The goal of this work is to investigate the in vitro and in vivo effects of the arylimidamide (AIA) DB766 against T. cruzi. This arylimidamide exhibits strong trypanocidal activity and excellent selectivity for bloodstream trypomastigotes and intracellular amastigotes (Y strain), giving IC(50)s (drug concentrations that reduce 50% of the number of the treated parasites) of 60 and 25 nM, respectively. DB766 also exerts striking effects upon different parasite stocks, including those naturally resistant to benznidazole, and displays higher activity in vitro than the reference drugs. By fluorescent and transmission electron microscopy analyses, we found that this AIA localizes in DNA-enriched compartments and induces considerable damage to the mitochondria. DB766 effectively reduces the parasite load in the blood and cardiac tissue and presents efficacy similar to that of benznidazole in mouse models of T. cruzi infection employing the Y and Colombian strains, using oral and intraperitoneal doses of up to 100 mg/kg/day that were given after the establishment of parasite infection. This AIA ameliorates electrocardiographic alterations, reduces hepatic and heart lesions induced by the infection, and provides 90 to 100% protection against mortality, which is similar to that provided by benznidazole. Our data clearly show the trypanocidal efficacy of DB766, suggesting that this AIA may represent a new lead compound candidate to Chagas' disease treatment.