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Carvalho-de-Araújo AD, Carvalho-Kelly LF, Meyer-Fernandes JR. Anaerobic energy metabolism in human microaerophile parasites. Exp Parasitol 2023; 247:108492. [PMID: 36841468 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2023.108492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
Mucosal-associated parasites, such as Giardia intestinalis, Entamoeba histolytica, and Trichomonas vaginalis, have significant clinical relevance. The pathologies associated with infection by these parasites are among those with the highest incidence of gastroenteritis (giardiasis and amoebiasis) and sexually transmitted infections (trichomoniasis). The treatment of these diseases is based on drugs that act on the anaerobic metabolism of these parasites, such as nitroimidazole and benzimidazole derivatives. One interesting feature of parasites is their ability to produce ATP under anaerobic conditions. Due to the absence of enzymes capable of producing ATP under anaerobic conditions in the vertebrate host, they have become interesting therapeutic targets. This review discusses anaerobic energy metabolism in mucosal-associated parasites, focusing on the anaerobic metabolism of pyruvate, the importance of these enzymes as therapeutic targets, and the importance of treating their infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayra Diandra Carvalho-de-Araújo
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, CCS, Bloco H, 2 andar, sala 13. Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil; Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Luiz Fernando Carvalho-Kelly
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, CCS, Bloco H, 2 andar, sala 13. Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil
| | - José Roberto Meyer-Fernandes
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, CCS, Bloco H, 2 andar, sala 13. Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902, Brazil; Instituto Nacional de Ciência a Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem (INCTBEB), Cidade Universitária, Ilha do Fundão, 21941-902, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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2
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Aguilera E, Sánchez C, Cruces ME, Dávila B, Minini L, Mosquillo F, Pérez-Díaz L, Serna E, Torres S, Schini A, Sanabria L, Vera de Bilbao NI, Yaluff G, Zolessi FR, Ceilas LF, Cerecetto H, Alvarez G. Preclinical Studies and Drug Combination of Low-Cost Molecules for Chagas Disease. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 16:ph16010020. [PMID: 36678516 PMCID: PMC9863266 DOI: 10.3390/ph16010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi). It remains the major parasitic disease in Latin America and is spreading worldwide, affecting over 10 million people. Hundreds of new compounds with trypanosomicidal action have been identified from different sources such as synthetic or natural molecules, but they have been deficient in several stages of drug development (toxicology, scaling-up, and pharmacokinetics). Previously, we described a series of compounds with simple structures, low cost, and environmentally friendly production with potent trypanosomicidal activity in vitro and in vivo. These molecules are from three different families: thiazolidenehydrazines, diarylideneketones, and steroids. From this collection, we explored their capacity to inhibit the triosephosphate isomerase and cruzipain of T. cruzi. Then, the mechanism of action was explored using NMR metabolomics and computational molecular dynamics. Moreover, the mechanism of death was studied by flow cytometry. Consequently, five compounds, 314, 793, 1018, 1019, and 1260, were pre-clinically studied and their pharmacologic profiles indicated low unspecific toxicity. Interestingly, synergetic effects of diarylideneketones 793 plus 1018 and 793 plus 1019 were evidenced in vitro and in vivo. In vivo, the combination of compounds 793 plus 1018 induced a reduction of more than 90% of the peak of parasitemia in the acute murine model of Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Aguilera
- Grupo de Química Orgánica Medicinal, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - Carina Sánchez
- Grupo de Química Orgánica Medicinal, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - María Eugenia Cruces
- Grupo de Química Orgánica Medicinal, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - Belén Dávila
- Grupo de Química Orgánica Medicinal, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - Lucía Minini
- Laboratorio de Química Teórica y Computacional, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - Florencia Mosquillo
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Moleculares, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - Leticia Pérez-Díaz
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Moleculares, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - Elva Serna
- Departamento de Medicina Tropical, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, San Lorenzo 2169, Paraguay
| | - Susana Torres
- Departamento de Medicina Tropical, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, San Lorenzo 2169, Paraguay
| | - Alicia Schini
- Departamento de Medicina Tropical, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, San Lorenzo 2169, Paraguay
| | - Luis Sanabria
- Departamento de Medicina Tropical, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, San Lorenzo 2169, Paraguay
| | - Ninfa I. Vera de Bilbao
- Departamento de Medicina Tropical, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, San Lorenzo 2169, Paraguay
| | - Gloria Yaluff
- Departamento de Medicina Tropical, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, San Lorenzo 2169, Paraguay
| | - Flavio R. Zolessi
- Sección Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República and Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | | | - Hugo Cerecetto
- Grupo de Química Orgánica Medicinal, Instituto de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
- Correspondence: (H.C.); (G.A.)
| | - Guzmán Alvarez
- Laboratorio de Moléculas Bioactivas, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, CENUR Litoral Norte, Universidad de la República, Rute 3 km 363, Paysandú 60000, Uruguay
- Correspondence: (H.C.); (G.A.)
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3
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Zíková A. Mitochondrial adaptations throughout the Trypanosoma brucei life cycle. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2022; 69:e12911. [PMID: 35325490 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The unicellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei has a digenetic life cycle that alternates between a mammalian host and an insect vector. During programmed development, this extracellular parasite encounters strikingly different environments that determine its energy metabolism. Functioning as a bioenergetic, biosynthetic, and signaling center, the single mitochondrion of T. brucei is drastically remodeled to support the dynamic cellular demands of the parasite. This manuscript will provide an up-to-date overview of how the distinct T. brucei developmental stages differ in their mitochondrial metabolic and bioenergetic pathways, with a focus on the electron transport chain, proline oxidation, TCA cycle, acetate production, and ATP generation. Although mitochondrial metabolic rewiring has always been simply viewed as a consequence of the differentiation process, the possibility that certain mitochondrial activities reinforce parasite differentiation will be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alena Zíková
- Biology Centre CAS, Institute of Parasitology, University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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4
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Shaw S, Knüsel S, Abbühl D, Naguleswaran A, Etzensperger R, Benninger M, Roditi I. Cyclic AMP signalling and glucose metabolism mediate pH taxis by African trypanosomes. Nat Commun 2022; 13:603. [PMID: 35105902 PMCID: PMC8807625 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28293-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The collective movement of African trypanosomes on semi-solid surfaces, known as social motility, is presumed to be due to migration factors and repellents released by the parasites. Here we show that procyclic (insect midgut) forms acidify their environment as a consequence of glucose metabolism, generating pH gradients by diffusion. Early and late procyclic forms exhibit self-organising properties on agarose plates. While early procyclic forms are repelled by acid and migrate outwards, late procyclic forms remain at the inoculation site. Furthermore, trypanosomes respond to exogenously formed pH gradients, with both early and late procyclic forms being attracted to alkali. pH taxis is mediated by multiple cyclic AMP effectors: deletion of one copy of adenylate cyclase ACP5, or both copies of the cyclic AMP response protein CARP3, abrogates the response to acid, while deletion of phosphodiesterase PDEB1 completely abolishes pH taxis. The ability to sense pH is biologically relevant as trypanosomes experience large changes as they migrate through their tsetse host. Supporting this, a CARP3 null mutant is severely compromised in its ability to establish infections in flies. Based on these findings, we propose that the expanded family of adenylate cyclases in trypanosomes might govern other chemotactic responses in their two hosts. African trypanosomes collectively move in a process called social motility. Here, the authors show that procyclic forms acidify their environment as a consequence of glucose metabolism, generating pH gradients by diffusion that are sensed via cyclic AMP signalling. Parasite mutants defective in cAMP signaling are inhibited in fly infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Shaw
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Graduate School of Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sebastian Knüsel
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Abbühl
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Isabel Roditi
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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5
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Villafraz O, Biran M, Pineda E, Plazolles N, Cahoreau E, Ornitz Oliveira Souza R, Thonnus M, Allmann S, Tetaud E, Rivière L, Silber AM, Barrett MP, Zíková A, Boshart M, Portais JC, Bringaud F. Procyclic trypanosomes recycle glucose catabolites and TCA cycle intermediates to stimulate growth in the presence of physiological amounts of proline. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009204. [PMID: 33647053 PMCID: PMC7951978 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei, a protist responsible for human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), is transmitted by the tsetse fly where the procyclic forms of the parasite develop in the proline-rich (1–2 mM) and glucose-depleted digestive tract. Proline is essential for the midgut colonization of the parasite in the insect vector, however other carbon sources could be available and used to feed its central metabolism. Here we show that procyclic trypanosomes can consume and metabolize metabolic intermediates, including those excreted from glucose catabolism (succinate, alanine and pyruvate), with the exception of acetate, which is the ultimate end-product excreted by the parasite. Among the tested metabolites, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates (succinate, malate and α-ketoglutarate) stimulated growth of the parasite in the presence of 2 mM proline. The pathways used for their metabolism were mapped by proton-NMR metabolic profiling and phenotypic analyses of thirteen RNAi and/or null mutants affecting central carbon metabolism. We showed that (i) malate is converted to succinate by both the reducing and oxidative branches of the TCA cycle, which demonstrates that procyclic trypanosomes can use the full TCA cycle, (ii) the enormous rate of α-ketoglutarate consumption (15-times higher than glucose) is possible thanks to the balanced production and consumption of NADH at the substrate level and (iii) α-ketoglutarate is toxic for trypanosomes if not appropriately metabolized as observed for an α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase null mutant. In addition, epimastigotes produced from procyclics upon overexpression of RBP6 showed a growth defect in the presence of 2 mM proline, which is rescued by α-ketoglutarate, suggesting that physiological amounts of proline are not sufficient per se for the development of trypanosomes in the fly. In conclusion, these data show that trypanosomes can metabolize multiple metabolites, in addition to proline, which allows them to confront challenging environments in the fly. In the midgut of its insect vector, trypanosomes rely on proline to feed their energy metabolism. However, the availability of other potential carbon sources that can be used by the parasite is currently unknown. Here we show that tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates, i.e. succinate, malate and α-ketoglutarate, stimulate growth of procyclic trypanosomes incubated in a medium containing 2 mM proline, which is in the range of the amounts measured in the midgut of the fly. Some of these additional carbon sources are needed for the development of epimastigotes, which differentiate from procyclics in the midgut of the fly, since their growth defect observed in the presence of 2 mM proline is rescued by addition of α-ketoglutarate. In addition, we have implemented new approaches to study a poorly explored branch of the TCA cycle converting malate to α-ketoglutarate, which was previously described as non-functional in the parasite, regardless of the glucose levels available. The discovery of this branch reveals that a full TCA cycle can operate in procyclic trypanosomes. Our data broaden the metabolic potential of trypanosomes and pave the way for a better understanding of the parasite’s metabolism in various organ systems of the tsetse fly, where it develops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oriana Villafraz
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Marc Biran
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques (CRMSB), UMR 5536, Bordeaux, France
| | - Erika Pineda
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Nicolas Plazolles
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Edern Cahoreau
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute, TBI-INSA de Toulouse INSA/CNRS 5504-UMR INSA/INRA 792, Toulouse, France.,MetaToul-MetaboHub, National Infrastructure of Metabolomics and Fluxomics, Toulouse, France
| | - Rodolpho Ornitz Oliveira Souza
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Magali Thonnus
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Stefan Allmann
- Fakultät für Biologie, Genetik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Grosshadernerstrasse 2-4, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Emmanuel Tetaud
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Loïc Rivière
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Ariel M Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps-LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.,Glasgow Polyomics, Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, Garscube Campus, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Alena Zíková
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Center, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Michael Boshart
- Fakultät für Biologie, Genetik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Grosshadernerstrasse 2-4, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Jean-Charles Portais
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute, TBI-INSA de Toulouse INSA/CNRS 5504-UMR INSA/INRA 792, Toulouse, France.,MetaToul-MetaboHub, National Infrastructure of Metabolomics and Fluxomics, Toulouse, France.,RESTORE, Université de Toulouse, Inserm U1031, CNRS 5070, UPS, EFS, ENVT, Toulouse, France
| | - Frédéric Bringaud
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France
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Jung H, Han J, Oh M. Improved production of 2,3-butanediol and isobutanol by engineering electron transport chain in Escherichia coli. Microb Biotechnol 2021; 14:213-226. [PMID: 32954676 PMCID: PMC7888471 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The electron transport chain (ETC) is one of the major energy generation pathways in microorganisms under aerobic condition. Higher yield of ATP can be achieved through oxidative phosphorylation with consumption of NADH than with substrate level phosphorylation. However, most value-added metabolites are in an electrochemically reduced state, which requires reducing equivalent NADH as a cofactor. Therefore, optimal production of value-added metabolites should be balanced with ETC in terms of energy production. In this study, we attempted to reduce the activity of ETC to secure availability of NADH. The ETC mutants exhibited poor growth rate and production of fermentative metabolites compared to parental strain. Introduction of heterologous pathways for synthesis of 2,3-butanediol and isobutanol to ETC mutants resulted in increased titres and yields of the metabolites. ETC mutants yielded higher NADH/NAD+ ratio but similar ATP content than that by the parental strain. Furthermore, ETC mutants operated fermentative metabolism pathways independent of oxygen supply in large-scale fermenter, resulting in increased yield and titre of 2,3-butanediol. Thus, engineering of ETC is a useful metabolic engineering approach for production of reduced metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hwi‐Min Jung
- Department of Chemical and Biological EngineeringKorea University145 Anam‐ro, Seongbuk‐guSeoul02841Korea
| | - Jae‐Ho Han
- Department of Chemical and Biological EngineeringKorea University145 Anam‐ro, Seongbuk‐guSeoul02841Korea
| | - Min‐Kyu Oh
- Department of Chemical and Biological EngineeringKorea University145 Anam‐ro, Seongbuk‐guSeoul02841Korea
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7
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Müller J, Vermathen M, Leitsch D, Vermathen P, Müller N. Metabolomic Profiling of Wildtype and Transgenic Giardia lamblia Strains by 1H HR-MAS NMR Spectroscopy. Metabolites 2020; 10:metabo10020053. [PMID: 32019059 PMCID: PMC7073884 DOI: 10.3390/metabo10020053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia lamblia, a causative agent of persistent diarrhea in humans, domestic animals, and cattle, is usually treated with nitro compounds. Consequently, enzymes involved in anaerobic nitro reduction have been investigated in detail as potential targets. Their role within the normal metabolic context is, however, not understood. Using 1H high-resolution magic angle spinning (HR-MAS) NMR spectroscopy, we analyzed the metabolomes of G. lamblia trophozoites overexpressing three nitroreductases (NR1–NR3) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR), most likely a scavenger of reactive oxygen species, as suggested by the results published in this study. We compared the patterns to convenient controls and to the situation in the nitro drug resistant strain C4 where NR1 is downregulated. We identified 27 metabolites in G. lamblia trophozoites. Excluding metabolites of high variability among different wildtype populations, only trophozoites overexpressing NR1 presented a distinct pattern of nine metabolites, in particular arginine catabolites, differing from the respective controls. This pattern matched a differential pattern between wildtype and strain C4. This suggests that NR1 interferes with arginine and thus energy metabolism. The exact metabolic function of NR1 (and the other nitroreductases) remains to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Müller
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland;
- Correspondence:
| | - Martina Vermathen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland;
| | - David Leitsch
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 15, A-1090 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Peter Vermathen
- Departments of BioMedical Research and Radiology, University and Inselspital Bern, sitem-insel AG Freiburgstr. 3, CH-3010 Bern, Switzerland;
| | - Norbert Müller
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland;
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8
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Zimorski V, Mentel M, Tielens AGM, Martin WF. Energy metabolism in anaerobic eukaryotes and Earth's late oxygenation. Free Radic Biol Med 2019; 140:279-294. [PMID: 30935869 PMCID: PMC6856725 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Eukaryotes arose about 1.6 billion years ago, at a time when oxygen levels were still very low on Earth, both in the atmosphere and in the ocean. According to newer geochemical data, oxygen rose to approximately its present atmospheric levels very late in evolution, perhaps as late as the origin of land plants (only about 450 million years ago). It is therefore natural that many lineages of eukaryotes harbor, and use, enzymes for oxygen-independent energy metabolism. This paper provides a concise overview of anaerobic energy metabolism in eukaryotes with a focus on anaerobic energy metabolism in mitochondria. We also address the widespread assumption that oxygen improves the overall energetic state of a cell. While it is true that ATP yield from glucose or amino acids is increased in the presence of oxygen, it is also true that the synthesis of biomass costs thirteen times more energy per cell in the presence of oxygen than in anoxic conditions. This is because in the reaction of cellular biomass with O2, the equilibrium lies very far on the side of CO2. The absence of oxygen offers energetic benefits of the same magnitude as the presence of oxygen. Anaerobic and low oxygen environments are ancient. During evolution, some eukaryotes have specialized to life in permanently oxic environments (life on land), other eukaryotes have remained specialized to low oxygen habitats. We suggest that the Km of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase of 0.1-10 μM for O2, which corresponds to about 0.04%-4% (avg. 0.4%) of present atmospheric O2 levels, reflects environmental O2 concentrations that existed at the time that the eukaryotes arose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Zimorski
- Institute of Molecular Evolution, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Marek Mentel
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, 851 04, Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | - Aloysius G M Tielens
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - William F Martin
- Institute of Molecular Evolution, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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9
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Control and regulation of the pyrophosphate-dependent glucose metabolism in Entamoeba histolytica. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2019; 229:75-87. [PMID: 30772421 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Entamoeba histolytica has neither Krebs cycle nor oxidative phosphorylation activities; therefore, glycolysis is the main pathway for ATP supply and provision of carbon skeleton precursors for the synthesis of macromolecules. Glucose is metabolized through fermentative glycolysis, producing ethanol as its main end-product as well as some acetate. Amoebal glycolysis markedly differs from the typical Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway present in human cells: (i) by the use of inorganic pyrophosphate, instead of ATP, as the high-energy phospho group donor; (ii) with one exception, the pathway enzymes can catalyze reversible reactions under physiological conditions; (iii) there is no allosteric regulation and sigmoidal kinetic behavior of key enzymes; and (iv) the presence of some glycolytic and fermentation enzymes similar to those of anaerobic bacteria. These peculiarities bring about alternative mechanisms of control and regulation of the PPi-dependent fermentative glycolysis in the parasite in comparison to the ATP-dependent and allosterically regulated glycolysis in many other eukaryotic cells. In this review, the current knowledge of the carbohydrate metabolism enzymes in E. histolytica is analyzed. Thermodynamics and stoichiometric analyses indicate 2 to 3.5 ATP yield per glucose metabolized, instead of the often presumed 5 ATP/glucose ratio. PPi derived from anabolism seems insufficient for PPi-glycolysis; hence, alternative ways of PPi supply are also discussed. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms of control and regulation of the E. histolytica carbohydrate metabolism, analyzed by applying integral and systemic approaches such as Metabolic Control Analysis and kinetic modeling, contribute to unveiling alternative and promising drug targets.
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10
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Tracking acetate through a journey of living world: Evolution as alternative cellular fuel with potential for application in cancer therapeutics. Life Sci 2018; 215:86-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2018.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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11
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Perrot‐Minnot M, Maddaleno M, Cézilly F. Parasite‐induced inversion of geotaxis in a freshwater amphipod: a role for anaerobic metabolism? Funct Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthieu Maddaleno
- Université Bourgogne Franche‐Comté UB, CNRS, Biogéosciences UMR6282 F‐21000 Dijon France
| | - Frank Cézilly
- Université Bourgogne Franche‐Comté UB, CNRS, Biogéosciences UMR6282 F‐21000 Dijon France
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Bringaud F, Biran M, Millerioux Y, Wargnies M, Allmann S, Mazet M. Combining reverse genetics and nuclear magnetic resonance-based metabolomics unravels trypanosome-specific metabolic pathways. Mol Microbiol 2015; 96:917-26. [PMID: 25753950 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Numerous eukaryotes have developed specific metabolic traits that are not present in extensively studied model organisms. For instance, the procyclic insect form of Trypanosoma brucei, a parasite responsible for sleeping sickness in its mammalian-specific bloodstream form, metabolizes glucose into excreted succinate and acetate through pathways with unique features. Succinate is primarily produced from glucose-derived phosphoenolpyruvate in peroxisome-like organelles, also known as glycosomes, by a soluble NADH-dependent fumarate reductase only described in trypanosomes so far. Acetate is produced in the mitochondrion of the parasite from acetyl-CoA by a CoA-transferase, which forms an ATP-producing cycle with succinyl-CoA synthetase. The role of this cycle in ATP production was recently demonstrated in procyclic trypanosomes and has only been proposed so far for anaerobic organisms, in addition to trypanosomatids. We review how nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry can be used to analyze the metabolic network perturbed by deletion (knockout) or downregulation (RNAi) of the candidate genes involved in these two particular metabolic pathways of procyclic trypanosomes. The role of succinate and acetate production in trypanosomes is discussed, as well as the connections between the succinate and acetate branches, which increase the metabolic flexibility probably required by the parasite to deal with environmental changes such as oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Bringaud
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR-5536 Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076, Bordeaux, France
| | - Marc Biran
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR-5536 Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076, Bordeaux, France
| | - Yoann Millerioux
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR-5536 Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076, Bordeaux, France
| | - Marion Wargnies
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR-5536 Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076, Bordeaux, France
| | - Stefan Allmann
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR-5536 Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076, Bordeaux, France
| | - Muriel Mazet
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR-5536 Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076, Bordeaux, France
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13
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Oikonomou A, Filker S, Breiner HW, Stoeck T. Protistan diversity in a permanently stratified meromictic lake (Lake Alatsee, SW Germany). Environ Microbiol 2014; 17:2144-57. [PMID: 25330396 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Protists play a crucial role for ecosystem function(ing) and oxygen is one of the strongest barriers against their local dispersal. However, protistan diversity in freshwater habitats with oxygen gradients received very little attention. We applied high-throughput sequencing of the V9 region (18S rRNA gene) to provide a hitherto unique spatiotemporal analysis of protistan diversity along the oxygen gradient of a freshwater meromictic lake (Lake Alatsee, SW Germany). In the mixolimnion, the communities experienced most seasonal structural changes, with Stramenopiles dominating in autumn and Dinoflagellata in summer. The suboxic interface supported the highest diversity, but only 23 OTUs95% (mainly Euglenozoa, after quality check and removal of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) with less than three sequences) were exclusively associated with this habitat. Eukaryotic communities in the anoxic monimolimnion showed the most stable seasonal pattern, with Chrysophyta and Bicosoecida being the dominant taxa. Our data pinpoint to the ecological role of the interface as a short-term 'meeting point' for protists, contributing to the coupling of the mixolimnion and the monimolimnion. Our analyses of divergent genetic diversity suggest a high degree of previously undescribed OTUs. Future research will have to reveal if this result actually points to a high number of undescribed species in such freshwater habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Oikonomou
- Department of Ecology, University of Kaiserslautern, Erwin Schroedinger Str. 14, D-67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Sabine Filker
- Department of Ecology, University of Kaiserslautern, Erwin Schroedinger Str. 14, D-67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Hans-Werner Breiner
- Department of Ecology, University of Kaiserslautern, Erwin Schroedinger Str. 14, D-67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Thorsten Stoeck
- Department of Ecology, University of Kaiserslautern, Erwin Schroedinger Str. 14, D-67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
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14
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Millerioux Y, Ebikeme C, Biran M, Morand P, Bouyssou G, Vincent IM, Mazet M, Riviere L, Franconi JM, Burchmore RJS, Moreau P, Barrett MP, Bringaud F. The threonine degradation pathway of the Trypanosoma brucei procyclic form: the main carbon source for lipid biosynthesis is under metabolic control. Mol Microbiol 2013; 90:114-29. [PMID: 23899193 PMCID: PMC4034587 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The Trypanosoma brucei procyclic form resides within the digestive tract of its insect vector, where it exploits amino acids as carbon sources. Threonine is the amino acid most rapidly consumed by this parasite, however its role is poorly understood. Here, we show that the procyclic trypanosomes grown in rich medium only use glucose and threonine for lipid biosynthesis, with threonine's contribution being ∼ 2.5 times higher than that of glucose. A combination of reverse genetics and NMR analysis of excreted end-products from threonine and glucose metabolism, shows that acetate, which feeds lipid biosynthesis, is also produced primarily from threonine. Interestingly, the first enzymatic step of the threonine degradation pathway, threonine dehydrogenase (TDH, EC 1.1.1.103), is under metabolic control and plays a key role in the rate of catabolism. Indeed, a trypanosome mutant deleted for the phosphoenolpyruvate decarboxylase gene (PEPCK, EC 4.1.1.49) shows a 1.7-fold and twofold decrease of TDH protein level and activity, respectively, associated with a 1.8-fold reduction in threonine-derived acetate production. We conclude that TDH expression is under control and can be downregulated in response to metabolic perturbations, such as in the PEPCK mutant in which the glycolytic metabolic flux was redirected towards acetate production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoann Millerioux
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques (RMSB), UMR-5536 Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076, Bordeaux, France
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15
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Peña-Diaz P, Pelosi L, Ebikeme C, Colasante C, Gao F, Bringaud F, Voncken F. Functional characterization of TbMCP5, a conserved and essential ADP/ATP carrier present in the mitochondrion of the human pathogen Trypanosoma brucei. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:41861-74. [PMID: 23074217 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.404699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei is a kinetoplastid parasite of medical and veterinary importance. Its digenetic life cycle alternates between the bloodstream form in the mammalian host and the procyclic form (PCF) in the bloodsucking insect vector, the tsetse fly. PCF trypanosomes rely in the glucose-depleted environment of the insect vector primarily on the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation of proline for their cellular ATP provision. We previously identified two T. brucei mitochondrial carrier family proteins, TbMCP5 and TbMCP15, with significant sequence similarity to functionally characterized ADP/ATP carriers from other eukaryotes. Comprehensive sequence analysis confirmed that TbMCP5 contains canonical ADP/ATP carrier sequence features, whereas they are not conserved in TbMCP15. Heterologous expression in the ANC-deficient yeast strain JL1Δ2Δ3u(-) revealed that only TbMCP5 was able to restore its growth on the non-fermentable carbon source lactate. Transport studies in yeast mitochondria showed that TbMCP5 has biochemical properties and ADP/ATP exchange kinetics similar to those of Anc2p, the prototypical ADP/ATP carrier of S. cerevisiae. Immunofluorescence microscopy and Western blot analysis confirmed that TbMCP5 is exclusively mitochondrial and is differentially expressed with 4.5-fold more TbMCP5 in the procyclic form of the parasite. Silencing of TbMCP5 expression in PCF T. brucei revealed that this ADP/ATP carrier is essential for parasite growth, particularly when depending on proline for energy generation. Moreover, ADP/ATP exchange in isolated T. brucei mitochondria was eliminated upon TbMCP5 depletion. These results confirmed that TbMCP5 functions as the main ADP/ATP carrier in the trypanosome mitochondrion. The important role of TbMCP5 in the T. brucei energy metabolism is further discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Peña-Diaz
- Department of Biological Sciences and Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, HU6 7RX Hull, United Kingdom
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Flux Analysis of the Trypanosoma brucei Glycolysis Based on a Multiobjective-Criteria Bioinformatic Approach. Adv Bioinformatics 2012; 2012:159423. [PMID: 23097667 PMCID: PMC3477527 DOI: 10.1155/2012/159423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei is a protozoan parasite of major of interest in discovering new genes for drug targets. This parasite alternates its life cycle between the mammal host(s) (bloodstream form) and the insect vector (procyclic form), with two divergent glucose metabolism amenable to in vitro culture. While the metabolic network of the bloodstream forms has been well characterized, the flux distribution between the different branches of the glucose metabolic network in the procyclic form has not been addressed so far. We present a computational analysis (called Metaboflux) that exploits the metabolic topology of the procyclic form, and allows the incorporation of multipurpose experimental data to increase the biological relevance of the model. The alternatives resulting from the structural complexity of networks are formulated as an optimization problem solved by a metaheuristic where experimental data are modeled in a multiobjective function.
Our results show that the current metabolic model is in agreement with experimental data and confirms the observed high metabolic flexibility of glucose metabolism. In addition, Metaboflux offers a rational explanation for the high flexibility in the ratio between final products from glucose metabolism, thsat is, flux redistribution through the malic enzyme steps.
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Müller M, Mentel M, van Hellemond JJ, Henze K, Woehle C, Gould SB, Yu RY, van der Giezen M, Tielens AGM, Martin WF. Biochemistry and evolution of anaerobic energy metabolism in eukaryotes. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2012; 76:444-95. [PMID: 22688819 PMCID: PMC3372258 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.05024-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 505] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Major insights into the phylogenetic distribution, biochemistry, and evolutionary significance of organelles involved in ATP synthesis (energy metabolism) in eukaryotes that thrive in anaerobic environments for all or part of their life cycles have accrued in recent years. All known eukaryotic groups possess an organelle of mitochondrial origin, mapping the origin of mitochondria to the eukaryotic common ancestor, and genome sequence data are rapidly accumulating for eukaryotes that possess anaerobic mitochondria, hydrogenosomes, or mitosomes. Here we review the available biochemical data on the enzymes and pathways that eukaryotes use in anaerobic energy metabolism and summarize the metabolic end products that they generate in their anaerobic habitats, focusing on the biochemical roles that their mitochondria play in anaerobic ATP synthesis. We present metabolic maps of compartmentalized energy metabolism for 16 well-studied species. There are currently no enzymes of core anaerobic energy metabolism that are specific to any of the six eukaryotic supergroup lineages; genes present in one supergroup are also found in at least one other supergroup. The gene distribution across lineages thus reflects the presence of anaerobic energy metabolism in the eukaryote common ancestor and differential loss during the specialization of some lineages to oxic niches, just as oxphos capabilities have been differentially lost in specialization to anoxic niches and the parasitic life-style. Some facultative anaerobes have retained both aerobic and anaerobic pathways. Diversified eukaryotic lineages have retained the same enzymes of anaerobic ATP synthesis, in line with geochemical data indicating low environmental oxygen levels while eukaryotes arose and diversified.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marek Mentel
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jaap J. van Hellemond
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Katrin Henze
- Institute of Molecular Evolution, University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christian Woehle
- Institute of Molecular Evolution, University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Sven B. Gould
- Institute of Molecular Evolution, University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Re-Young Yu
- Institute of Molecular Evolution, University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Mark van der Giezen
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Aloysius G. M. Tielens
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - William F. Martin
- Institute of Molecular Evolution, University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Millerioux Y, Morand P, Biran M, Mazet M, Moreau P, Wargnies M, Ebikeme C, Deramchia K, Gales L, Portais JC, Boshart M, Franconi JM, Bringaud F. ATP synthesis-coupled and -uncoupled acetate production from acetyl-CoA by mitochondrial acetate:succinate CoA-transferase and acetyl-CoA thioesterase in Trypanosoma. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:17186-17197. [PMID: 22474284 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.355404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Insect stage trypanosomes use an "acetate shuttle" to transfer mitochondrial acetyl-CoA to the cytosol for the essential fatty acid biosynthesis. The mitochondrial acetate sources are acetate:succinate CoA-transferase (ASCT) and an unknown enzymatic activity. We have identified a gene encoding acetyl-CoA thioesterase (ACH) activity, which is shown to be the second acetate source. First, RNAi-mediated repression of ASCT in the ACH null background abolishes acetate production from glucose, as opposed to both single ASCT and ACH mutants. Second, incorporation of radiolabeled glucose into fatty acids is also abolished in this ACH/ASCT double mutant. ASCT is involved in ATP production, whereas ACH is not, because the ASCT null mutant is ∼1000 times more sensitive to oligomycin, a specific inhibitor of the mitochondrial F(0)/F(1)-ATP synthase, than wild-type cells or the ACH null mutant. This was confirmed by RNAi repression of the F(0)/F(1)-ATP synthase F(1)β subunit, which is lethal when performed in the ASCT null background but not in the wild-type cells or the ACH null background. We concluded that acetate is produced from both ASCT and ACH; however, only ASCT is responsible, together with the F(0)/F(1)-ATP synthase, for ATP production in the mitochondrion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoann Millerioux
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Pauline Morand
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Marc Biran
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Muriel Mazet
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Patrick Moreau
- Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, UMR 5200, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Marion Wargnies
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Charles Ebikeme
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Kamel Deramchia
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Lara Gales
- Université de Toulouse, INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, 135 Avenue de Rangueil, F-31077 Toulouse, France; INRA, UMR792, Ingénierie des Systèmes Biologiques et des Procédés, F-31400 Toulouse, France; CNRS, UMR5504, F-31400 Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Charles Portais
- Université de Toulouse, INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, 135 Avenue de Rangueil, F-31077 Toulouse, France; INRA, UMR792, Ingénierie des Systèmes Biologiques et des Procédés, F-31400 Toulouse, France; CNRS, UMR5504, F-31400 Toulouse, France
| | - Michael Boshart
- Biozentrum, Genetik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Grosshadernerstr, 2-4, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Jean-Michel Franconi
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Frédéric Bringaud
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, Université Bordeaux Segalen, CNRS, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France.
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Costa TL, Ribeiro-Dias F, Oliveira MA, Bezerra JC, Vinaud MC. Energetic metabolism of axenic promastigotes of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. Exp Parasitol 2011; 128:438-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2011.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2011] [Revised: 05/16/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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