More on the social psychology of hypnotic responding

Hypnosis in psychotherapy, psychosomatics and medicine. A brief overview

Aspects of hypnosis and its application in psychotherapy, psychosomatics and medicine are examined and contextualized in the 250-year history of hypnosis. Imagination as an essential element of hypnotic treatments appeared as early as 1784 as an argument rejecting the theory of animal magnetism of Franz Anton Mesmer. In somnambulism of German romanticism, another proto-form of hypnosis after 1800, concepts of the mind-body problem were dealt with, which still characterize the understanding of unconscious mental processes today. Hypnosis was at the beginning of psychoanalysis, but was not pursued further by Sigmund Freud from 1900 onwards. Nevertheless, there were some hypnoanalytical approaches in the 20th century, as well as attempts to integrate hypnosis into behavior therapy. Techniques of imagination and relaxation combine both; in particular findings from cognitive psychology explain processes of both hypnosis and cognitive behavioral therapy. The influence of social psychology brought a new perspective to the debate about the nature of hypnosis, which continues to this day: is hypnosis to be understood as a special state of consciousness or is it a completely normal, mundane interaction? The experiments that were carried out to support one side or the other were also dependent on the hypnotizability of the subjects involved, as the more difficult hypnotic phenomena such as paralysis, hallucinations or identity delusions can only be demonstrated by highly hypnotizable subjects. The fact that these are not mere compliance reactions has now been proven by many studies using imaging techniques. But even those who are moderately hypnotizable benefit from hypnosis rituals. Variables postulated by socio-cognitive hypnosis researchers, such as motivation and expectation, are relevant, as is a good "hypnotic rapport." Practical application of hypnotherapy today is characterized by the innovative techniques and strategies developed by Milton H. Erickson. Research into the effectiveness of hypnosis in the field of psychotherapy and psychosomatics still leaves much to be done. The situation is different in the field of medical hypnosis, where there are considerably more studies with a satisfactory design and verifiable effects. However, the impact in practical application in everyday medical practice is still low. Newer developments such as virtual reality and artificial intelligence are being looked at with critical interest.

Hypnotizability, personality style, and attachment: an exploratory study, part 1-general results

This article is an exploratory study investigating the relationship between hypnotizability, personality style, and attachment. Data were collected from 99 students by means of the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A; Personality Styles and Disorders Inventory; and Relationship Scale Questionnaire. Results suggest that individual personality styles accounted for a significant amount of variance in hypnotizability in: (a) the whole sample, (b) the securely attached, and (c) the insecurely attached. High hypnotizables among both the whole sample and securely attached individuals shared the unselfish/self-sacrificing personality style as a main predictor of hypnotizability and displayed elevated scores for the charming/histrionic and the optimistic/rhapsodic personality style. Furthermore, two groups were identified among the high hypnotizables that differed mainly according to attachment style: one consists of securely attached, charming/histrionic, and optimistic/rhapsodic people, who are best described by socio-cognitive theories. The other is composed of insecurely attached intuitive/schizotypal people, who are better depicted by dissociation theories.

Involuntariness in hypnotic responding and dissociative symptoms

Clark Hull's (1933) research on dissociation was based on a 'straw man' formulation of dissociation; he claimed that dissociation requires noninterference. Hull completely ignored the then-current paradigm of dissociation--dissociation as automatism--and claimed that he had refuted the validity of the phenomenon of dissociation. Hull's view of dissociation held sway in the hypnosis field for 60 years. This essay seeks to retrieve the Janetian paradigm of dissociation as automatism. Automatisms are unexpected, uninitiated, involuntary behaviors that just 'happen.' The author argues that human sensitivity to the experience of involuntariness (a) is quite important, (b) was selected by evolution, and (c) is central to both hypnotic responses and dissociative symptoms. This editorial urges the hypnosis field and the dissociation field to jointly undertake a renewed investigation of the experience of involuntariness and to follow recent neuroimaging studies which indicate that the parietal cortex underlies the experience of involuntariness.

Social–Cognitive Alternatives to Dissociation Theories of Hypnotic Involuntariness

Three social–cognitive models are presented as alternatives to dissociation theories of hypnotic involuntariness. In Model I, people are seen as intentionally enacting responses without being aware of the volitional quality of their acts. In Model II, hypnotic behaviors are seen as prepared responses that are triggered directly by suggestion. The first model corresponds to E. R. Hilgard's (1986) neodissociation theory and the second to K. S. Bowers's (1992) theory of dissociated control, but without positing dissociative mechanisms as explanatory constructs. These constructs are replaced by a consideration of the automaticity that is inherent in commonplace intentional behavior and the degree to which subjective experience is affected by beliefs and expectations. Finally, a composite model reconciling the contradictions between the two prior social–cognitive models is presented.

Hypnotic involuntariness and the automaticity of everyday life

We present a new theory of hypnotic involuntariness based on an integration and extension of recent social and cognitive theories on the automaticity of mundane, intentional behavior. According to this model, experiences of volition and involuntariness-in and out of hypnosis-are constructions or interpretations made possible by the high degree of automaticity that is a characteristic of all complex behavior, including novel behavior. Suggested nonvolitional behaviors are intentional acts that are triggered automatically by situational cues (suggestions) and cue-related sensations. The triggering of both the behaviors and the sensations are enabled by the formation of a generalized response expectancy, which is a cognitive set to respond appropriately to suggestions. Response expectancies are functionally equivalent to implementation intentions taking the form, "emit response x when situation y is encountered." The classification of a response set as either an expectancy or an intention and the experience of the response as volitional or nonvolitional depend on interpretations derived from instructional cues and prior beliefs.

Direct versus indirect suggestions: a conceptual and methodological review

The article reviews the literature on the effects of direct versus indirect hypnotic suggestions. A conceptual and methodological analysis of direct versus indirect suggestions is also provided. Three conclusions follow from the review: (a) Contrary to views of Ericksonian hypnotists, suggestion style has little effect on objective responding to hypnotic test items; (b) studies of clinical- and laboratory-induced pain and other measures of subjective experience have yielded contradictory results--however, the best controlled studies have not indicated that indirect suggestions are superior to direct suggestions; and (c) there is insufficient evidence to conclude that hypnotizability level and suggestion wording interact, such that low hypnotizable subjects are particularly responsive to indirect suggestions. Methodological and conceptual problems in defining and studying hypnotic communications, the lack of rigorous experimental controls, and research issues and directions are highlighted.