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Clark CJ, Jussim L, Frey K, Stevens ST, al-Gharbi M, Aquino K, Bailey JM, Barbaro N, Baumeister RF, Bleske-Rechek A, Buss D, Ceci S, Del Giudice M, Ditto PH, Forgas JP, Geary DC, Geher G, Haider S, Honeycutt N, Joshi H, Krylov AI, Loftus E, Loury G, Lu L, Macy M, Martin CC, McWhorter J, Miller G, Paresky P, Pinker S, Reilly W, Salmon C, Stewart-Williams S, Tetlock PE, Williams WM, Wilson AE, Winegard BM, Yancey G, von Hippel W. Prosocial motives underlie scientific censorship by scientists: A perspective and research agenda. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2301642120. [PMID: 37983511 PMCID: PMC10691350 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2301642120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Science is among humanity's greatest achievements, yet scientific censorship is rarely studied empirically. We explore the social, psychological, and institutional causes and consequences of scientific censorship (defined as actions aimed at obstructing particular scientific ideas from reaching an audience for reasons other than low scientific quality). Popular narratives suggest that scientific censorship is driven by authoritarian officials with dark motives, such as dogmatism and intolerance. Our analysis suggests that scientific censorship is often driven by scientists, who are primarily motivated by self-protection, benevolence toward peer scholars, and prosocial concerns for the well-being of human social groups. This perspective helps explain both recent findings on scientific censorship and recent changes to scientific institutions, such as the use of harm-based criteria to evaluate research. We discuss unknowns surrounding the consequences of censorship and provide recommendations for improving transparency and accountability in scientific decision-making to enable the exploration of these unknowns. The benefits of censorship may sometimes outweigh costs. However, until costs and benefits are examined empirically, scholars on opposing sides of ongoing debates are left to quarrel based on competing values, assumptions, and intuitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cory J. Clark
- School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA9104
- The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA9104
| | - Lee Jussim
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ08854
| | - Komi Frey
- Research Department, Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, Philadelphia, PA19106
| | - Sean T. Stevens
- Research Department, Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, Philadelphia, PA19106
| | - Musa al-Gharbi
- School of Communication and Journalism, Stony Brook University, Long Island, NY11794
| | - Karl Aquino
- Marketing and Behavioral Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British ColumbiaV6T 1Z2, Canada
| | - J. Michael Bailey
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL60208
| | - Nicole Barbaro
- Communications Department, Heterodox Academy, New York City, NY10038
| | - Roy F. Baumeister
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD4072, Australia
| | - April Bleske-Rechek
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, WI54702
| | - David Buss
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78731
| | - Stephen Ceci
- Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY14853
| | - Marco Del Giudice
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste34128, Italy
| | - Peter H. Ditto
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California Irvine, California, CA92697
| | - Joseph P. Forgas
- School of Psychology, The University of New South Wales, SydneyNSW2052, Australia
| | - David C. Geary
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO56211
| | - Glenn Geher
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York at New Paltz, New Paltz, NY12561
| | | | - Nathan Honeycutt
- Research Department, Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, Philadelphia, PA19106
| | - Hrishikesh Joshi
- University of Arizona, Department of Philosophy, Tucson, AZ85721
| | - Anna I. Krylov
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA90089
| | - Elizabeth Loftus
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California Irvine, California, CA92697
| | - Glenn Loury
- Department of Economics, Brown University, Providence, RI02912
| | - Louise Lu
- Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Michael Macy
- Department of Sociology, Cornell University, Ithaca14850, New York
- Department of Information Science, Cornell University, Ithaca14850, New York
| | - Chris C. Martin
- Psychology Department, Oglethorpe University, Brookhaven, GA30319
| | - John McWhorter
- Center for American Studies, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
| | - Geoffrey Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM87131
| | - Pamela Paresky
- Network Contagion Research Institute, Princeton, NJ08540
| | - Steven Pinker
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
| | - Wilfred Reilly
- School of Criminal Justice and Political Science, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY40601
| | - Catherine Salmon
- Department of Psychology, University of Redlands, Redlands, CA92373
| | - Steve Stewart-Williams
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Semenyih43500, Malaysia
| | - Philip E. Tetlock
- School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA9104
- The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA9104
| | | | - Anne E. Wilson
- Psychology Department, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ONN2L3C5, Canada
| | | | - George Yancey
- Department of Sociology, Baylor University, Waco, TX76798
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