Social and genetic mating system of Ridgway's hawk ( Buteo ridgwayi ), an endemic raptor on Hispaniola

Coevolution of female fidelity and male help in populations with alternative reproductive tactics

In socially monogamous species, pair-bonded males often continue to provide care to all offspring in their nests despite some degree of paternity loss due to female extra-pair copulation. Previous theoretical models suggested that females can use their within-pair offspring as 'hostages' to blackmail their social mates, so that they continue to provide care to the brood at low levels of cuckoldry. These models, however, rely on the assumption of sufficiently accurate male detection of cuckoldry and the reduction of parental effort in case of suspicion. Therefore, they cannot explain the abundant cases where cuckolded males continue to provide extensive care to the brood. Here we use an analytical population genetics model and an individual-based simulation model to explore the coevolution of female fidelity and male help in populations with two genetically determined alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs): sneakers that achieve paternity solely via extra-pair copulations and bourgeois that form a mating pair and spend some efforts in brood care. We show that when the efficiency of mate guarding is intermediate, the bourgeois males can evolve to 'specialize' in providing care by spending more than 90% of time in helping their females while guarding them as much as possible, despite frequent cuckoldry by the sneakers. We also show that when sneakers have tactic-specific adaptations and thus are more competitive than the bourgeois in gaining extra-pair fertilizations, the frequency of sneakers and the degrees of female fidelity and male help can fluctuate in evolutionary cycles. Our theoretical predictions highlight the need for further empirical tests in species with ARTs.