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Heutinck PAT, van den Born LI, Vermeer M, Iglesias Gonzales AI, Hoyng CB, Pott JWR, Kroes HY, van Schooneveld MJ, Boon CJF, van Genderen MM, Plomp AS, de Jong-Hesse Y, van Egmond-Ebbeling MB, Hoefsloot LH, A. Bergen A, Klaver CCW, Meester-Smoor MA, Thiadens AAHJ, Verhoeven VJM. Frequency and Genetic Spectrum of Inherited Retinal Dystrophies in a Large Dutch Pediatric Cohort: The RD5000 Consortium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2024; 65:40. [PMID: 39189993 PMCID: PMC11361385 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.65.10.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Gene-based therapies for inherited retinal dystrophies (IRDs) are upcoming. Treatment before substantial vision loss will optimize outcomes. It is crucial to identify common phenotypes and causative genes in children. This study investigated the frequency of these in pediatric IRD with the aim of highlighting relevant groups for future therapy. Methods Diagnostic, genetic, and demographic data, collected from medical charts of patients with IRD aged up to 20 years (n = 624, 63% male), registered in the Dutch RD5000 database, were analyzed to determine frequencies of phenotypes and genetic causes. Phenotypes were categorized as nonsyndromic (progressive and stationary IRD) and syndromic IRD. Genetic causes, mostly determined by whole-exome sequencing (WES), were examined. Additionally, we investigated the utility of periodic reanalysis of WES data in genetically unresolved cases. Results Median age at registration was 13 years (interquartile range, 9-16). Retinitis pigmentosa (RP; n = 123, 20%), Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA; n = 97, 16%), X-linked retinoschisis (n = 64, 10%), and achromatopsia (n = 63, 10%) were the most frequent phenotypes. The genetic cause was identified in 76% of the genetically examined patients (n = 473). The most frequently disease-causing genes were RS1 (n = 32, 9%), CEP290 (n = 28, 8%), CNGB3 (n = 21, 6%), and CRB1 (n = 17, 5%). Diagnostic yield after reanalysis of genetic data increased by 7%. Conclusions As in most countries, RP and LCA are the most prominent pediatric IRDs in the Netherlands, and variants in RS1 and CEP290 were the most prominent IRD genotypes. Our findings can guide therapy development to target the diseases and genes with the greatest needs in young patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pam A. T. Heutinck
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Maikel Vermeer
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- The Rotterdam Eye Hospital and Rotterdam Ophthalmic Institute, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Carel B. Hoyng
- Department of Ophthalmology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Jan Willem R. Pott
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Hester Y. Kroes
- Department of Clinical Genetics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Mary J. van Schooneveld
- Department of Ophthalmology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Bartiméus Diagnostic Center for Complex Visual Disorders, Zeist, the Netherlands
| | - Camiel J. F. Boon
- Department of Ophthalmology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Ophthalmology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Maria M. van Genderen
- Bartiméus Diagnostic Center for Complex Visual Disorders, Zeist, the Netherlands
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Astrid S. Plomp
- Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam Reproduction & Development, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Yvonne de Jong-Hesse
- Department of Ophthalmology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Ophthalmology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | - Lies H. Hoefsloot
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Arthur A. Bergen
- Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam Reproduction & Development, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Caroline C. W. Klaver
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- The Rotterdam Eye Hospital and Rotterdam Ophthalmic Institute, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Ophthalmology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Magda A. Meester-Smoor
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- The Rotterdam Eye Hospital and Rotterdam Ophthalmic Institute, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Virginie J. M. Verhoeven
- Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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Xue Y, Lin B, Chen JT, Tang WC, Browne AW, Seiler MJ. The Prospects for Retinal Organoids in Treatment of Retinal Diseases. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila) 2022; 11:314-327. [PMID: 36041146 PMCID: PMC9966053 DOI: 10.1097/apo.0000000000000538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal degeneration (RD) is a significant cause of incurable blindness worldwide. Photoreceptors and retinal pigmented epithelium are irreversibly damaged in advanced RD. Functional replacement of photoreceptors and/or retinal pigmented epithelium cells is a promising approach to restoring vision. This paper reviews the current status and explores future prospects of the transplantation therapy provided by pluripotent stem cell-derived retinal organoids (ROs). This review summarizes the status of rodent RD disease models and discusses RO culture and analytical tools to evaluate RO quality and function. Finally, we review and discuss the studies in which RO-derived cells or sheets were transplanted. In conclusion, methods to derive ROs from pluripotent stem cells have significantly improved and become more efficient in recent years. Meanwhile, more novel technologies are applied to characterize and validate RO quality. However, opportunity remains to optimize tissue differentiation protocols and achieve better RO reproducibility. In order to screen high-quality ROs for downstream applications, approaches such as noninvasive and label-free imaging and electrophysiological functional testing are promising and worth further investigation. Lastly, transplanted RO-derived tissues have allowed improvements in visual function in several RD models, showing promises for clinical applications in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuntian Xue
- Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA
- Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Bin Lin
- Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Jacqueline T. Chen
- Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - William C. Tang
- Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Andrew W. Browne
- Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, CA
- Institute for Clinical and Translational Science, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Magdalene J. Seiler
- Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, CA
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California, Irvine, CA
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, CA
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3
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Cellular regeneration strategies for macular degeneration: past, present and future. Eye (Lond) 2018; 32:946-971. [PMID: 29503449 PMCID: PMC5944658 DOI: 10.1038/s41433-018-0061-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite considerable effort and significant therapeutic advances, age-related macular degeneration (AMD) remains the commonest cause of blindness in the developed world. Progressive late-stage AMD with outer retinal degeneration currently has no proven treatment. There has been significant interest in the possibility that cellular treatments may slow or reverse visual loss in AMD. A number of modes of action have been suggested, including cell replacement and rescue, as well as immune modulation to delay the neurodegenerative process. Their appeal in this enigmatic disease relate to their generic, non-pathway-specific effects. The outer retina in particular has been at the forefront of developments in cellular regenerative therapies being surgically accessible, easily observable, as well as having a relatively simple architecture. Both the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and photoreceptors have been considered for replacement therapies as both sheets and cell suspensions. Studies using autologous RPE, and to a lesser extent, foetal retina, have shown proof of principle. A wide variety of cell sources have been proposed with pluripotent stem cell-derived cells currently holding the centre stage. Recent early-phase trials using these cells for RPE replacement have met safety endpoints and hinted at possible efficacy. Animal studies have confirmed the promise that photoreceptor replacement, even in a completely degenerated outer retina may restore some vision. Many challenges, however, remain, not least of which include avoiding immune rejection, ensuring long-term cellular survival and maximising effect. This review provides an overview of progress made, ongoing studies and challenges ahead.
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Farrar GJ, Carrigan M, Dockery A, Millington-Ward S, Palfi A, Chadderton N, Humphries M, Kiang AS, Kenna PF, Humphries P. Toward an elucidation of the molecular genetics of inherited retinal degenerations. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 26:R2-R11. [PMID: 28510639 PMCID: PMC5886474 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
While individually classed as rare diseases, hereditary retinal degenerations (IRDs) are the major cause of registered visual handicap in the developed world. Given their hereditary nature, some degree of intergenic heterogeneity was expected, with genes segregating in autosomal dominant, recessive, X-linked recessive, and more rarely in digenic or mitochondrial modes. Today, it is recognized that IRDs, as a group, represent one of the most genetically diverse of hereditary conditions - at least 260 genes having been implicated, with 70 genes identified in the most common IRD, retinitis pigmentosa (RP). However, targeted sequencing studies of exons from known IRD genes have resulted in the identification of candidate mutations in only approximately 60% of IRD cases. Given recent advances in the development of gene-based medicines, characterization of IRD patient cohorts for known IRD genes and elucidation of the molecular pathologies of disease in those remaining unresolved cases has become an endeavor of the highest priority. Here, we provide an outline of progress in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Jane Farrar
- Institute of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Matthew Carrigan
- Institute of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Adrian Dockery
- Institute of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Sophia Millington-Ward
- Institute of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Arpad Palfi
- Institute of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Naomi Chadderton
- Institute of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Marian Humphries
- Institute of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Anna Sophia Kiang
- Institute of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Paul F Kenna
- Research Foundation, Royal Victoria Eye and Ear Hospital, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Pete Humphries
- Institute of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
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Campbell LJ, Hyde DR. Opportunities for CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing in Retinal Regeneration Research. Front Cell Dev Biol 2017; 5:99. [PMID: 29218308 PMCID: PMC5703712 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2017.00099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
While retinal degeneration and disease results in permanent damage and vision loss in humans, the severely damaged zebrafish retina has a high capacity to regenerate lost neurons and restore visual behaviors. Advancements in understanding the molecular and cellular basis of this regeneration response give hope that strategies and therapeutics may be developed to restore sight to blind and visually-impaired individuals. Our current understanding has been facilitated by the amenability of zebrafish to molecular tools, imaging techniques, and forward and reverse genetic approaches. Accordingly, the zebrafish research community has developed a diverse array of research tools for use in developing and adult animals, including toolkits for facilitating the generation of transgenic animals, systems for inducible, cell-specific transgene expression, and the creation of knockout alleles for nearly every protein coding gene. As CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing has begun to revolutionize molecular biology research, the zebrafish community has responded in stride by developing CRISPR/Cas9 techniques for the zebrafish as well as incorporating CRISPR/Cas9 into available toolsets. The application of CRISPR/Cas9 to retinal regeneration research will undoubtedly bring us closer to understanding the mechanisms underlying retinal repair and vision restoration in the zebrafish, as well as developing therapeutic approaches that will restore vision to blind and visually-impaired individuals. This review focuses on how CRISPR/Cas9 has been integrated into zebrafish research toolsets and how this new tool will revolutionize the field of retinal regeneration research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah J Campbell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Zebrafish Research and Center for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States
| | - David R Hyde
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Zebrafish Research and Center for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States
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Hanlon KS, Chadderton N, Palfi A, Blanco Fernandez A, Humphries P, Kenna PF, Millington-Ward S, Farrar GJ. A Novel Retinal Ganglion Cell Promoter for Utility in AAV Vectors. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:521. [PMID: 28983234 PMCID: PMC5613148 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant advances in gene therapy have enabled exploration of therapies for inherited retinal disorders, many of which are in preclinical development or clinical evaluation. Gene therapy for retinal conditions has led the way in this growing field. The loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is a hallmark of a number of retinal disorders. As the field matures innovations that aid in refining therapies and optimizing efficacy are in demand. Gene therapies under development for RGC-related disorders, when delivered with recombinant adeno associated vectors (AAV), have typically been expressed from ubiquitous promoter sequences. Here we describe how a novel promoter from the murine Nefh gene was selected to drive transgene expression in RGCs. The Nefh promoter, in an AAV2/2 vector, was shown to drive preferential EGFP expression in murine RGCs in vivo following intravitreal injection. In contrast, EGFP expression from a CMV promoter was observed not only in RGCs, but throughout the inner nuclear layer and in amacrine cells located within the ganglion cell layer (GCL). Of note, the Nefh promoter sequence is sufficiently compact to be readily accommodated in AAV vectors, where transgene size represents a significant constraint. Moreover, this promoter should in principle provide a more targeted and potentially safer alternative for RGC-directed gene therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Killian S Hanlon
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College DublinDublin, Ireland
| | - Naomi Chadderton
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College DublinDublin, Ireland
| | - Arpad Palfi
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College DublinDublin, Ireland
| | | | - Peter Humphries
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College DublinDublin, Ireland
| | - Paul F Kenna
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College DublinDublin, Ireland.,Research Foundation, Royal Victoria Eye and Ear HospitalDublin, Ireland
| | - Sophia Millington-Ward
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College DublinDublin, Ireland
| | - G Jane Farrar
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College DublinDublin, Ireland
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Identification of a new mutant allele, Grm6(nob7), for complete congenital stationary night blindness. Vis Neurosci 2016; 32:E004. [PMID: 26241901 DOI: 10.1017/s0952523815000012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Electroretinogram (ERG) studies identified a new mouse line with a normal a-wave but lacking the b-wave component. The ERG phenotype of this new allele, nob7, matched closely that of mouse mutants for Grm6, Lrit3, Trpm1, and Nyx, which encode for proteins expressed in depolarizing bipolar cells (DBCs). To identify the underlying mutation, we first crossed nob7 mice with Grm6 nob3 mutants and measured the ERGs in offspring. All the offspring lacked the b-wave, indicating that nob7 is a new allele for Grm6: Grm6 nob7 . Sequence analyses of Grm6 nob7 cDNAs identified a 28 base pair insertion between exons 8 and 9, which would result in a frameshift mutation in the open reading frame that encodes the metabotropic glutamate receptor 6 (Grm6). Sequencing both the cDNA and genomic DNA from exon 8 and intron 8, respectively, from the Grm6 nob7 mouse revealed a G to A transition at the last position in exon 8. This mutation disrupts splicing and the normal exon 8 is extended by 28 base pairs, because splicing occurs 28 base pairs downstream at a cryptic splice donor. Consistent with the impact of the resulting frameshift mutation, there is a loss of mGluR6 protein (encoded by Grm6) from the dendritic tips of DBCs in the Grm6 nob7 retina. These results indicate that Grm6 nob7 is a new model of the complete form of congenital stationary night blindness, a human condition that has been linked to mutations of GRM6.
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Jacobson SG, Cideciyan AV, Roman AJ, Sumaroka A, Schwartz SB, Heon E, Hauswirth WW. Improvement and decline in vision with gene therapy in childhood blindness. N Engl J Med 2015; 372:1920-6. [PMID: 25936984 PMCID: PMC4450362 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1412965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Retinal gene therapy for Leber's congenital amaurosis, an autosomal recessive childhood blindness, has been widely considered to be safe and efficacious. Three years after therapy, improvement in vision was maintained, but the rate of loss of photoreceptors in the treated retina was the same as that in the untreated retina. Here we describe long-term follow-up data from three treated patients. Topographic maps of visual sensitivity in treated regions, nearly 6 years after therapy for two of the patients and 4.5 years after therapy for the third patient, indicate progressive diminution of the areas of improved vision. (Funded by the National Eye Institute; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00481546.).
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel G Jacobson
- From the Scheie Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.J., A.V.C., A.J.R., A.S., S.B.S.); the Departments of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, the Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto (E.H.); and the Department of Ophthalmology, University of Florida, Gainesville (W.W.H.)
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Palfi A, Chadderton N, O'Reilly M, Nagel-Wolfrum K, Wolfrum U, Bennett J, Humphries P, Kenna P, Millington-Ward S, Farrar J. Efficient gene delivery to photoreceptors using AAV2/rh10 and rescue of the Rho(-/-) mouse. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2015; 2:15016. [PMID: 26029727 PMCID: PMC4444994 DOI: 10.1038/mtm.2015.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Revised: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
As gene therapies for various forms of retinal degeneration progress toward human clinical trial, it will be essential to have a repertoire of safe and efficient vectors for gene delivery to the target cells. Recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) serotype 2/2 has been shown to be well tolerated in the human retina and has provided efficacy in human patients for some inherited retinal degenerations. In this study, the AAV2/8 and AAV2/rh10 serotypes have been compared as a means of gene delivery to mammalian photoreceptor cells using a photoreceptor specific promoter for transgene expression. Both AAV2/8 and AAV2/rh10 provided rescue of the retinal degeneration present in the rhodopsin knockout mouse, with similar levels of benefit as evaluated by molecular, histological, and functional readouts. Transgene expression levels were significantly higher (fivefold) 1 week postsubretinal injection when employing AAV2/8 for rhodopsin gene delivery compared to AAV2/rh10, and were indistinguishable by 6 weeks postadministration of vector. This study reports the use of the AAV2/rh10 serotype to provide rescue in a degenerating retina and provides a comparative evaluation of AAV2/rh10 with respect to AAV2/8, a serotype regarded as providing efficient delivery to photoreceptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpad Palfi
- Department of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin , Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Naomi Chadderton
- Department of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin , Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Mary O'Reilly
- Department of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin , Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Kerstin Nagel-Wolfrum
- Cell and Matrix Biology, Institute of Zoology, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz , Mainz, Germany
| | - Uwe Wolfrum
- Cell and Matrix Biology, Institute of Zoology, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz , Mainz, Germany
| | - Jean Bennett
- Center for Advanced Retinal and Ocular Therapeutics, Perelman School Of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Peter Humphries
- Department of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin , Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Paul Kenna
- Department of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin , Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Sophia Millington-Ward
- Department of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin , Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Jane Farrar
- Department of Genetics, School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin , Dublin 2, Ireland
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