The effects of different proxies of cognitive reserve on episodic memory performance: aging study in Iran

The False Recognition Test, a new tool for the assessment of false memories, with normative data from an Italian sample

INTRODUCTION

False memory can be defined as remembering something that did not happen. To a certain extent it is a normal phenomenon, but its occurrence seems to increase in healthy and pathological aging, possibly providing relevant clues on some clinical conditions in the spectrum of dementia. We adapted a well-established Deed-Roediger-McDermott paradigm, frequently used in experimental contexts, to devise a new neuropsychological assessment tool, the False Recognition Test (FRT), that can investigate classical facets of episodic memory performance (i.e. free recall and recognition), and assess proneness to produce semantically related and non-semantic false memories. Here we describe the FRT and provide normative data and correction grids to consider the possible effects of age, gender, and education on the FRT scores.

METHOD

Two-hundred and thirty-two Italian healthy individuals (99 male) aged 18-91 years, with different educational levels (from primary to university) underwent the FRT, together with validated tests for cognitive screening and episodic memory assessment and one scale for depression.

RESULTS

Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that age and education significantly influenced performance on FRT. From the derived linear equations, we provide correction grids for the raw scores of the FRT, and equivalent scores estimated using a nonparametric method. Correlational analysis showed significant associations between FRT subscores and cognitive, executive and memory functions, and depression.

CONCLUSION

The FRT may constitute a useful instrument for both clinical and research purposes.

Which intellectual activities are related to cognitive reserve? Introduction and testing a three-dimensional model

BACKGROUND

A common belief among people and some researchers is that keeping yourself mentally active may decrease the risk of dementia. Over the past years, despite widespread efforts to identify proxies for protecting cognitive reserve against age-related changes, it is still not clear what type of intellectual activity would be beneficial for cognitive reserve. To fill this gap, we propose a three-dimensional model of intellectual activity. According to this conceptual model, intellectual activities could be distinguished based on their locations in a three-dimensions space, including; (1) Activation: active vs. passive, (2) Novelty: novel vs. familiar, and (3) Productivity: productive vs. receptive. We assumed that the activities that are categorized as more active, novel, and productive could be considered as a cognitive reserve proxy.

METHODS

To test this hypothesis, a sample of 237 participants older than 50 years (Mage = 58.76 ± 6.66; 63.7% women) was recruited to take part in the study. Episodic, semantic and working memory were assessed with computerized battery tests (Sepidar) and a self-report questionnaire was used to assess intellectual activities. Activities were categorized in terms of; (1) passive, familiar, and receptive activities (radio/watching TV), (2) active, familiar, and receptive activities (solving crosswords), (3) active, novel, and receptive activities (reading), and (4) active, novel, and productive activities (writing).

RESULTS

The results indicated that writing moderates the effect of age on episodic and semantic memory. Reading only moderates the effect of age on semantic memory, and radio/watching TV and solving crosswords do not play a role in moderation analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our finding suggests that intellectual activities have different moderating effects on the relationships between age and memory performance. Individuals with high levels of participation in novel and productive activities over the life course are less likely to clinically demonstrate cognitive impairments. Our results support the potential benefit of the three-dimensional model to provide a better insight into the complex role of intellectual activities in cognitive reserve, particularly for older adults. Further research is needed to evaluate the efficacy and the benefits of the model.

The relationship between cognitive reserve and cognition in healthy adults: a systematic review

The concept of Cognitive Reserve (CR) refers to the individual differences allowing some people to cope better with brain pathology. The aim of the present review was to explore the relationship between CR and cognition in adulthood. This association has been addressed in several neuro(psycho)logical disorders and in healthy elderly people. However, few studies explored this issue in adulthood (age range 18–65), when individuals might take advantage the most from psychoeducational approaches aimed at increasing CR. For our systematic review, we selected studies assessing CR and adopting neuropsychological and experimental tasks for evaluation of cognitive functioning in healthy individuals. In the selected articles, we examined the relationship of singular proxies, composite indexes or standardized scales of CR with measures of general cognition, attention, inhibitory control, verbal fluency, constructional abilities, and verbal and spatial memory. The results suggested a positive relationship between singular CR proxies, composite indexes or standardized scales, and almost all the explored cognitive domains. No clear conclusion could be made on constructional abilities due to the scarcity of available studies. CR seems associated with better cognitive performance in adulthood, but definite methodological improvements and the use of standardized scales for CR are necessary to reduce inconsistencies among studies.

The Lifetime of Experiences Questionnaire: Psychometric Properties and Relationships With Memory Function in an Iranian Elderly Sample

This study aimed to validate the Persian version of the Lifetime of Experiences Questionnaire (LEQ) and examine the relationship between life experience and memory function. To this end, two studies were conducted. Study one examined the factor structure, internal consistency, and convergent and discriminant validity of the Persian version of LEQ with 247 healthy elderly individuals (M age = 70.17, SD = 4.42; 55.9% women). The exploratory factor analysis yielded a five-factor solution, including Knowledge, Physical, Socialization, Artistic, and Leisure dimensions, which accounted for 42.42% of the explained variance. The internal consistency of the LEQ was in the acceptable range (α = 0.703). Also, the LEQ and its subscales (except the Artistic subscale) had a negative relationship with geriatric depression and a positive relationship with a healthy lifestyle, supporting the measure's convergent and discriminant validity. In the second study, we examined the relationship between LEQ (total and subscales score) and memory function using Pearson correlation and moderating analysis with 149 participants (M age = 70.37, SD = 4.29; 55.03% women). The results demonstrated that the LEQ total and subscales scores correlated positively with episodic memory. In the same vein, LEQ total score and Knowledge subscale showed a positive correlation with semantic memory. The results of moderation analysis showed that LEQ subscales have a different role in memory decline. The knowledge subscale as a content component moderates the effect of age on semantic memory (B = 0.005, t = 2.021, p = 0.045), while the mid-life non-specific activities, which are based on life stages, moderate the effect of age on episodic memory (B = 0.007, t = 3.348, p = 0.001). In conclusion, our results indicated that the Persian version of the LEQ is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring experiences and activities throughout life, which can be used in professional clinical and research settings in the aging context with Iranian elderly samples. Furthermore, our findings suggest that various life experiences can be considered cognitive reserves in old age.

Does our cognitive empathy diminish with age? The moderator role of educational level

INTRODUCTION

The literature has demonstrated how the relationship between cognitive or emotional intelligence and age exhibits an inverted-U-shape and that this decline can be mitigated by an individual's cognitive reserve (CR). Rather less is known, however, about the pattern of changes in cognitive empathy or the ability to recognize the thoughts or feelings of others.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was firstly to analyze the effect of age, gender, and CR (measured through educational level), on the capacity to show cognitive empathy. Secondly, we aimed to evaluate what type of relationship-linear or quadratic-exists between age and cognitive empathy. We finally aimed to analyze the moderator role of educational level on the relationship between age and cognitive empathy.

PARTICIPANTS

Totally, 902 Spanish adults aged between 18 and 79 years (M = 43.53, SD = 11.86; 57% women).

MEASUREMENTS

Participants were asked to indicate their educational level (primary, high school, or college education) and their cognitive empathy was assessed using the Eyes test.

RESULTS

Women scored higher than men on cognitive empathy. Participants with a college education had higher scores on cognitive empathy than those with a lower educational level. Additionally, the relationship between age and cognitive empathy fit an inverted-U-shaped curve, consistent with the data found for cognitive and emotional intelligence. Finally, the age-related decrease in cognitive empathy appeared to be mitigated by a higher educational level, but only in those individuals aged 35 years and above. Limitations and clinical implications are discussed.

Characterizing the Resilience Effect of Neurodegeneration for the Mechanistic Pathway of Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

With the rapid development of neurobiology and neuroimaging technologies, mounting evidence shows that Alzheimer's disease (AD) is caused by the build-up of two abnormal proteins, amyloid-β plaques (A) and neurofibrillary tangles (T). Over time, these AD-related neuropathological burdens begin to spread throughout the brain, which results in the characteristic progression of symptoms in AD.

OBJECTIVE

Although tremendous efforts have been made to link biological indicators to the progression of AD, limited attention has been paid to investigate the multi-factorial role of socioeconomic status (SES) in the prevalence or incidence of AD. There is high demand to explore the synergetic effect of sex and SES factors in moderating the neurodegeneration process caused by the accumulation of A and T biomarkers.

METHODS

We carry out a meta-data analysis on the longitudinal neuroimaging data, clinical outcomes, genotypes, and demographic data in Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) database (http://adni.loni.usc.edu).

RESULTS

Our major findings include 1) education and occupation show resilience effects at the angular gyrus, superior parietal lobule, lateral occipital-temporal sulcus, and posterior transverse collateral sulcus where we found significant slowdown of neurodegeneration due to higher education level or more advanced occupation rank; 2) A and T biomarkers manifest different spatial patterns of brain resilience; 3) BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs10835211 shows strong association to the identified resilience effect; 4) the identified resilience effect is associated with the clinical manifestation in memory, learning, and organization performance.

CONCLUSION

Several brain regions manifest resilience from SES to A and T biomarkers. BDNF SNPs have a potential association with the resilience effect from SES. In addition, cognitive measures of learning and memory demonstrate the resilience effect.