Mesenteric near-infrared spectroscopy and risk of gastrointestinal complications in infants undergoing surgery for congenital heart disease

Changes in adequacy of splanchnic oxygen delivery and splanchnic artery Doppler after bolus feedings in infants: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Current practice regarding timing of feed initiation and feed tolerance largely relies on anecdotal practice and protocols. This study aims to provide an objective measure to guide clinical practice by analyzing changes in splanchnic regional oxygen saturation and Doppler patterns with feeds.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed. Inclusion criteria were: 1) patients under 1 year of age; 2) splanchnic regional oxygen saturation with near infrared spectroscopy before and after feeds or mesenteric Doppler findings before and after feeds; and 3) clinical parameters must have been presented as either mean and standard deviation or median and range. Endpoints of interest included splanchnic regional oxygen saturation, splanchnic systolic velocity, and splanchnic diastolic velocity. Meta-analyses were conducted using an inverse-variance model. The pooled effects are reported as mean difference and 95% confidence interval. Meta-regression was conducted for each endpoint with the following independent variables entered into the model: study year, gestational age, birth weight, time to measurement, and age at time of study.

RESULTS

This study included 8 studies with a total of 240 patients. Splanchnic regional oxygen saturation did not significantly differ after feeds (mean difference +1.0, 95% CI -2.9 to 4.9, p-value 0.62). Sensitivity analyses demonstrated that gestational age under 28 weeks was associated with a significant decrease in splanchnic regional oxygen saturation and GA over 30 weeks was not. Splanchnic artery systolic velocity was significantly higher after feeds (mean difference +34.0 cm/s, 95% CI 11.1-57.0 cm/s, p-value <0.01). Sensitivity analyses for gestational age and birth weight did not find any significant difference in pooled effect.

CONCLUSION

Splanchnic regional oxygen saturation was significantly decreased after feeds in those patients under 28 weeks of gestation compared to those over 30 weeks. Systolic and diastolic Doppler velocities were significantly higher after feeds without differences in gestational age.

Enteral Nutrition in Term Infants with Congenital Heart Disease: Knowledge Gaps and Future Directions to Improve Clinical Practice

Optimal nutrition is essential to improve short- and long-term outcomes in newborns with congenital heart disease (CHD). Nevertheless, several issues on nutritional management and concerns about the potential risk of complications related to enteral feeding exist. This narrative review aims to summarize and discuss the available literature on enteral feeding in term infants with CHD. A wide variability in feeding management exists worldwide. Emerging approaches to improve nutritional status and outcomes in infants with CHD include: implementation of a standardized enteral feeding protocol, both preoperative and postoperative, clearly defining time of initiation and advancement of enteral feeds, reasons to withhold, and definitions of feeding intolerance; early minimal enteral feeding; enteral feeding in stable term infants on hemodynamic support; evaluation of enteral feeding in term infants with umbilical arterial catheters and during prostaglandin infusion; assessment and support of oro-motor skills; and promotion and support of breastfeeding and provision of mother's own milk or donor milk when mother's own milk is not available. As evidence from term infants is scarce, available observations and recommendations partially rely on studies in preterm infants. Thus, well-designed studies assessing standardized clinically relevant outcomes are needed to provide robust evidence and shared recommendations and practices.

Immediate Post-operative Enterocyte Injury, as Determined by Increased Circulating Intestinal Fatty Acid Binding Protein, Is Associated With Subsequent Development of Necrotizing Enterocolitis After Infant Cardiothoracic Surgery

Objectives: 1 Measure serial serum intestinal fatty acid binding protein levels in infants undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass to evaluate for evidence of early post-operative enterocyte injury. 2 Determine the association between immediate post-operative circulating intestinal fatty acid binding protein levels and subsequent development of necrotizing enterocolitis. Design: Observational cohort study. Intestinal fatty acid binding protein was measured pre-operatively, at rewarming, and at 6 and 24 h post-operatively. Percent of goal enteral kilocalories on post-operative day 5 and episodes of necrotizing enterocolitis were determined. Multivariable analysis assessed for factors independently associated with clinical feeding outcomes and suspected/definite necrotizing enterocolitis. Setting: Quaternary free-standing children's hospital pediatric cardiac intensive care unit. Patients: 103 infants <120 days of age undergoing cardiothoracic surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. Interventions: None. Results: Median pre-operative intestinal fatty acid binding protein level was 3.93 ng/ml (range 0.24-51.32). Intestinal fatty acid binding protein levels rose significantly at rewarming (6.35 ng/ml; range 0.54-56.97; p = 0.008), continued to rise slightly by 6 h (6.57 ng/ml; range 0.75-112.04; p = 0.016), then decreased by 24 h (2.79 ng/ml; range 0.03-81.74; p < 0.0001). Sixteen subjects (15.7%) developed modified Bell criteria Stage 1 necrotizing enterocolitis and 9 subjects (8.8%) developed Stage 2 necrotizing enterocolitis. Infants who developed necrotizing enterocolitis demonstrated a significantly higher distribution of intestinal fatty acid binding protein levels at both 6 h (p = 0.005) and 24 h (p = 0.005) post-operatively. On multivariable analysis, intestinal fatty acid binding protein was not associated with percentage of goal enteral kilocalories delivered on post-operative day 5. Higher intestinal fatty acid binding protein was independently associated with subsequent development of suspected/definite necrotizing enterocolitis (4% increase in odds of developing necrotizing enterocolitis for each unit increase in intestinal fatty acid binding protein; p = 0.0015). Conclusions: Intestinal fatty acid binding protein levels rise following infant cardiopulmonary bypass, indicating early post-operative enterocyte injury. Intestinal fatty acid binding protein was not associated with percent of goal enteral nutrition achieved on post-operative day 5, likely due to protocolized feeding advancement based on clinically observable factors. Higher intestinal fatty acid binding protein at 6 h post-operatively was independently associated with subsequent development of necrotizing enterocolitis and may help identify patients at risk for this important complication.

The application of near-infrared spectroscopy in oxygen therapy for premature infants

Objective: This study used near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to detect the pulmonary regional oxygen saturation (rSO₂) of premature infants. The oxygenation state of the lung tissue was also evaluated, which provided preliminary evidence regarding the application of NIRS in oxygen therapy for premature infants.Methods: NIRS was used to measure the pulmonary rSO₂ of 26 premature infants (gestational age <32 weeks). The correlations between pulmonary rSO₂ and the arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO₂), arterial oxygen saturation (SaO₂), and pulse oxygen saturation (SpO₂) were analyzed. The diagnostic value of NIRS was evaluated via both Pearson's correlation and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses.Results: Pulmonary rSO₂ was positively correlated with both PO₂ and SaO₂; the linear correlation coefficients (r) were 0.544 (p = .004) and 0.515 (p = .007), respectively. No significant correlation was found between rSO₂ and SpO₂ (p = .098). SpO₂ was positively correlated with PO₂ (r = 0.402, p = .042) and SaO₂ (r = 0.625, p = .001). NIRS could be used to predict hypoxemia (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.843; Youden's index =0.654) when the pulmonary rSO₂ was 62.39%, the sensitivity was 88.9%, and the specificity was 23.5% (p = .005) as well as predict hyperoxemia (AUC = 0.775; Youden's index = 0.65) when the pulmonary rSO₂ was 61.99%, the sensitivity was 100%, and the specificity was 35% (p = .045). SpO₂ predicted hypoxemia (AUC = 0.784, p = .019) but not hyperoxemia (AUC = 0.7, p = .144).Conclusion: NIRS objectively reflects the changes in oxygenation in the lung tissue. This study provides evidence for the clinical application of NIRS.

Enteral Feeding Practices in Infants With Congenital Heart Disease Across European PICUs: A European Society of Pediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care Survey

OBJECTIVES

To describe enteral feeding practices in pre and postoperative infants with congenital heart disease in European PICUs.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional electronic survey.

SETTING

European PICUs that admit infants with congenital heart disease pre- and postoperatively.

PARTICIPANTS

One senior PICU physician or designated person per unit.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Fifty-nine PICUs from 18 European countries responded to the survey. PICU physicians were involved in the nutritional care of children with congenital heart disease in most (76%) PICUs, but less than 60% of units had a dedicated dietician. Infants with congenital heart disease were routinely fed preoperatively in only 63% of the PICUs, due to ongoing concerns around prostaglandin E1 infusion, the presence of umbilical venous and/or arterial catheters, and the use of vasoactive drugs. In three quarters of the PICUs (76%), infants were routinely fed during the first 24 hours postoperatively. Units cited, the most common feeding method, both pre and postoperatively, was intermittent bolus feeds via the gastric route. Importantly, 69% of European PICUs still did not have written guidelines for feeding, but this varied for pre and postoperative patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Wide variations in practices exist in the nutritional care between European PICUs, which reflects the absence of local protocols and scientific society-endorsed guidelines. This is likely to contribute to suboptimal energy delivery in this particularly vulnerable group.