A study on the correlates of habit-, reward-, and fear-related motivations in alcohol use disorder

Cognitive inflexibility moderates the relationship between relief-driven drinking motives and alcohol use

Introduction

Drinking motives and neurocognition play significant roles in predicting alcohol use. There is limited research examining how relief-driven drinking motives interact with neurocognition in alcohol use, which would help to elucidate the neurocognitive-motivational profiles most susceptible to harmful drinking. This study investigated the interactions between neurocognition (response inhibition and cognitive flexibility) and relief-driven drinking, in predicting problem drinking.

Methods

Participants completed the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test - Consumption items (AUDIT-C) to measure drinking behaviour, and online cognitive tasks, including the Value-Modulated Attentional Capture and Reversal Task (VMAC-R) and the Stop Signal Task (SST). The sample (N = 368) were individuals who drink alcohol, which included a subsample (N = 52) with problematic drinking, as defined by self-identifying as having a primary drinking problem. Drinking motives were assessed using a binary coping question in the overall sample, and the Habit, Reward, and Fear Scale (HRFS) in the subsample. Moderation analyses were conducted to investigate whether cognitive flexibility and response inhibition moderated relationships between relief-driven motives and drinking.

Results

Cognitive flexibility moderated the relationship between relief-driven motives and drinking (overall sample: β = 13.69, p = 0.017; subsample: β = 1.45, p = 0.013). Greater relief-driven motives were associated with heavier drinking for individuals with low cognitive flexibility. There was no significant interaction between response inhibition and relief-driven motives.

Conclusions

Relief-driven drinking motives interact with cognitive inflexibility to drive heavier drinking. Greater understanding of these neurocognitive-motivational mechanisms may help to develop more targeted and effective interventions for reducing harmful drinking.

Drinking behavior patterns may be associated with persistent depressive symptoms after alcohol abstinence in alcohol use disorder

AIM

This study examined the association between drinking behavior patterns and depressive symptoms after alcohol abstinence in patients with alcohol use disorder (AUD).

METHOD

We recruited 102 AUD inpatients with baseline depressive symptoms, indicated by scores ≥6 on the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Self-Report Japanese Version (QIDS-SR-J) pre-detoxification. Post-4-week abstinence, remission was defined as QIDS-SR-J scores <6. Patients were classified into remitted (n = 51) and persistent (n = 51) groups. Comparative analyses were conducted using patient profiles and the Drinking Behavior Pattern 20-item Questionnaire (DBP-20). Logistic regression identified factors related to post-abstinence persistent depression. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis determined DBP-20 cutoff scores differentiating between persistent and remitted depression.

RESULTS

The persistent group exhibited higher scores in the DBP-20 "coping with negative affect" subscale. Logistic regression showed low education, unemployment, and using alcohol for coping as significant factors for persistent depression. Conversely, an automatic drinking pattern indicated natural remission post-abstinence. A subscale score of ≥8 in alcohol use for coping, especially among unemployed patients, predicted persistent depression (sensitivity 86.8%, positive predictive value 73.3%).

CONCLUSION

Unemployed patients with AUD using alcohol to cope with negative affect may experience residual depression even after detoxification. In contrast, patients with AUD with predominantly automatic drinking behavior may exhibit natural remission post-abstinence.

Habit-, reward- and fear-related motivations in alcohol use disorder: A one-year prospective study

OBJECTIVE

Cross-sectional studies show that habitual use of alcohol is associated with severity of alcohol dependence reflected across a range of domains and lower number of detoxifications in multiple settings. In this study, we investigated whether alcohol use disorder (AUD) patients with greater habitual use of alcohol at baseline showed worse outcomes after one year of follow-up.

METHODS

A sample of inpatients with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) alcohol use disorder (AUD) was assessed at baseline (n = 50) and after one year (n = 30). The Habit, Reward, and Fear Scale (HRFS) was employed to quantify affective (fear or reward) and non-affective (habitual) drives for alcohol use, the Alcohol Dependence Scale (ADS) was used to assess clinical outcomes, and the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) was used to quantify and control for associated affective symptoms.

RESULTS

There was a significant reduction in the three HRFS scores at the follow-up. Regression analyses demonstrated that greater habit- and fear-related drives at baseline predicted greater decreases in the ADS scores at the endpoint. However, after controlling for age, sex and affective symptoms, only reward and fear were associated with reductions in ADS scores at the end of one year. Prescriptions of naltrexone and antidepressants/benzodiazepines did not predict decreases in reward and fear-related motivations.

CONCLUSION

Although we were unable to confirm that habitual subscores at baseline predict worse long-term outcomes among inpatients with AUD, we found that a greater fear and reward motives for the use of alcohol predicted a greater magnitude of improvement in the AUD symptoms after one year. We hope that these findings will help develop new approaches toward AUD treatment and inform models of addiction research.

Associations between relapse and drinking behaviors in patients with alcohol use disorders: A 6-month prospective study

BACKGROUND

Habitual behaviors, rather than goal-oriented behaviors, mainly characterize drinking patterns in patients with alcohol use disorder (AUD). However, few studies have focused on the influence of drinking behavior on AUD relapse. This prospective study examined associations between drinking behavior patterns and alcohol-use relapse using the 20-item questionnaire for drinking behavior patterns (DBP-20).

METHODS

We enrolled patients with AUD and compared the cohort's demographic data and 6-month outcomes based on the DBP-20 and the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test between two groups (alcohol use relapse vs. abstinence). We also assessed the results for significant factors related to relapse.

RESULTS

We included 105 patients with AUD. More patients in the relapse group (n = 63) were active smokers and lived alone, while fewer took medication with cyanamide or disulfiram than those in the abstinence group (n = 42). The DBP-20 automaticity subscale score was higher in the relapse group than that in the abstinence group. Current smoker, living alone, and automatic drinking habits were significantly associated with AUD relapse.

CONCLUSIONS

Automaticity may be a risky drinking behavior that leads to future relapse in patients with AUD, justifying behavioral strategies to combat automatic drinking for relapse prevention.

A Novel, Expert-Endorsed, Neurocognitive Digital Assessment Tool for Addictive Disorders: Development and Validation Study

BACKGROUND

Many people with harmful addictive behaviors may not meet formal diagnostic thresholds for a disorder. A dimensional approach, by contrast, including clinical and community samples, is potentially key to early detection, prevention, and intervention. Importantly, while neurocognitive dysfunction underpins addictive behaviors, established assessment tools for neurocognitive assessment are lengthy and unengaging, difficult to administer at scale, and not suited to clinical or community needs. The BrainPark Assessment of Cognition (BrainPAC) Project sought to develop and validate an engaging and user-friendly digital assessment tool purpose-built to comprehensively assess the main consensus-driven constructs underpinning addictive behaviors.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to psychometrically validate a gamified battery of consensus-based neurocognitive tasks against standard laboratory paradigms, ascertain test-retest reliability, and determine their sensitivity to addictive behaviors (eg, alcohol use) and other risk factors (eg, trait impulsivity).

METHODS

Gold standard laboratory paradigms were selected to measure key neurocognitive constructs (Balloon Analogue Risk Task [BART], Stop Signal Task [SST], Delay Discounting Task [DDT], Value-Modulated Attentional Capture [VMAC] Task, and Sequential Decision-Making Task [SDT]), as endorsed by an international panel of addiction experts; namely, response selection and inhibition, reward valuation, action selection, reward learning, expectancy and reward prediction error, habit, and compulsivity. Working with game developers, BrainPAC tasks were developed and validated in 3 successive cohorts (total N=600) and a separate test-retest cohort (N=50) via Mechanical Turk using a cross-sectional design.

RESULTS

BrainPAC tasks were significantly correlated with the original laboratory paradigms on most metrics (r=0.18-0.63, P<.05). With the exception of the DDT k function and VMAC total points, all other task metrics across the 5 tasks did not differ between the gamified and nongamified versions (P>.05). Out of 5 tasks, 4 demonstrated adequate to excellent test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient 0.72-0.91, P<.001; except SDT). Gamified metrics were significantly associated with addictive behaviors on behavioral inventories, though largely independent of trait-based scales known to predict addiction risk.

CONCLUSIONS

A purpose-built battery of digitally gamified tasks is sufficiently valid for the scalable assessment of key neurocognitive processes underpinning addictive behaviors. This validation provides evidence that a novel approach, purported to enhance task engagement, in the assessment of addiction-related neurocognition is feasible and empirically defensible. These findings have significant implications for risk detection and the successful deployment of next-generation assessment tools for substance use or misuse and other mental disorders characterized by neurocognitive anomalies related to motivation and self-regulation. Future development and validation of the BrainPAC tool should consider further enhancing convergence with established measures as well as collecting population-representative data to use clinically as normative comparisons.

Investigating the role of morningness/eveningness in physical activity engagement

Objective

Despite being aware of the positive health-related outcomes of physical activity, many people remain inactive. The aim of this study is to apply a combination of constructs from the health action process approach and self-determination theory, as well as habit and morningness/eveningness, to predict physical activity engagement.

Methods

A prospective design was used to collect data from 136 participants (16–64 years old), at two-time points, one week apart. The sample consisted of 99 women, 36 men and 1 individual who identified as non-binary. Participants preferred time-of-day was measured using the Morningness-Eveningness Stability Scale (MESSi), while physical activity engagement was measured using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (short-version). Two hierarchical, multiple regressions were conducted, to predict motivation to engage and to directly predict physical activity engagement. Furthermore, a mediation analysis was conducted to determine the effect of planning on physical activity engagement.

Results

Results showed that younger individuals and those with greater self-efficacy were more motivated to engage while planning directly predicted physical activity engagement. However, morningness/eveningness did not significantly predict engagement. Additionally, planning was found to mediate the motivation-engagement relationship.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates how planning influences individuals’ physical activity engagement, as well as the role self-efficacy and age play in their motivation to engage. Even though morningness/eveningness was not an important predictor, behaviour change techniques related to action planning and the use of multi-component approaches to behaviour change, could be used in interventions focused on increasing individuals’ physical activity engagement.

Increased Habit Frequency in the Daily Lives of Patients with Acute Anorexia Nervosa

Strict eating routines and frequent rigid behavior patterns are commonly observed in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN). A recent theory proposes that while these behaviors may have been reinforced initially, they later become habitual. To date, however, research has been overly focused on eating-disorder (ED)-related habits. Over the course of seven days, we applied an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to investigate the habit frequency and strength of ED-specific (food intake) and ED-unspecific (hygiene) habits in the daily lives of a sample of n = 57 AN and n = 57 healthy controls (HC). The results of the hierarchical models revealed that habits were significantly more likely in patients compared with HC for both categories, independently. Furthermore, a lower body mass index (BMI) was associated with increased habit frequency in AN. Our study strengthens the habit theory of AN by showing the relevance of habits beyond ED-specific behavioral domains. This also supports the development of innovative therapeutic interventions targeting habitual behavior in EDs.

Development of a 20-item questionnaire for drinking behavior pattern (DBP-20) toward personalized behavioral approaches for alcohol use disorder

Although screening tools are available for alcohol use disorders (AUD), such as the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), these tools do not directly characterize individual drinking behavior for patients with AUD. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a new self-report questionnaire to identify the characteristics of drinking behavior patterns in patients with AUD.The study team developed a self-administered 20-item questionnaire for drinking behavior pattern (DBP-20) based on semi-structured interviews of patients with AUD. The DBP-20 and AUDIT were administered to 232 patients with AUD and 222 normal drinkers (1 ≤ AUDIT <20) as controls. Exploratory factor analysis of the DBP-20 was conducted for patients with AUD, followed by comparisons of its item and subscale scores between patients with AUD and controls. Correlations of AUDIT with total and subscale scores of the DBP-20 were also analyzed. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses for the DBP-20 and its subscales were performed to distinguish patients with AUD from controls.Exploratory factor analysis revealed a multidimensional 4-factor model of the DBP-20: coping with negative affect, automaticity, enhancement, and social use. Significant differences in DBP-20 total and subscale scores were observed for patients with AUD versus controls for all factors, except the social use subscale. Both the coping with negative affect and automaticity subscale scores as well as total DBP-20 scores were highly correlated with AUDIT scores. Total DBP-20 scores showed the greatest sensitivity, negative predictive value, and area under the ROC curve to distinguish patients with AUD from normal drinkers.Drinking as a means of coping with negative affect and automaticity may be specific for patients with AUD. DBP-20 may help patients with AUD to be aware of their own targeted problematic drinking behaviors and to seek their personalized behavioral approaches in a collaborative relationship with therapists.

The Habitual Tendencies Questionnaire: A tool for psychometric individual differences research

Habits are automatic responses to learned stimuli or contextual cues that are insensitive to goals. Although habits may allow for automated behaviours that increase efficiency in our daily lives, an over-reliance on habits has been suggested to contribute to disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). There are currently few established measures of individual differences in habitual tendencies. To fill this gap, the present study generated and validated a novel 11-item scale, the Habitual Tendencies Questionnaire (HTQ), to measure individual differences in habitual tendencies in the general population. In Study 1, factor analysis revealed three underlying subcomponents of the HTQ: Compulsivity, Preference for Regularity, and Aversion to Novelty, with Compulsivity showing the strongest association with subclinical OCD symptomatology. Study 2 validated the HTQ and replicated the findings of Study 1 in a larger sample, and explored relationships with other personality traits. The results emphasise the importance of measuring individual variation in habitual thinking styles, illustrating that different facets of habitual tendencies may contribute to diverse behavioural and clinical outcomes. The present investigation provides a new, reliable way of measuring habitual tendencies and has important implications for future explorations into the nature of individual differences from a dimensional perspective to psychiatry.

Psychometric investigation of the Chinese version of the Habit, Reward and Fear Scale (HRFS)

BACKGROUND

Tobacco use is one of the most important risk factors for health, and China is the largest producer and consumer of tobacco in the world. Monitoring and controlling the tobacco epidemic is an important issue. However, the motivation underlying smoking behavior is complex and specific to the individual. The Habit, Reward and Fear Scale (HRFS) is a feasible tool to evaluate this complex motivation.

OBJECTIVES

To validate the psychometric properties of the HRFS Chinese version (HRFS-C) and to assess the relationship between motivation and smoking behavior.

METHOD

We recruited 967 participants through social media and assessed their smoking behavior with three instruments: the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence-Chinese version (FTND-C), the Questionnaire on Smoking Urges-Brief Scale-Chinese version (QSU-brief-C), and the HRFS-C. Ultimately, we retained 700 valid data points. Cronbach's α and split-half tests were used to evaluate the reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis, Pearson's r and an analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to evaluate the validity. In addition, linear regression was used to explore the relationship among the three instruments. The HRFS-C showed good homogeneity (α = 0.965), concurrent validity, and discriminant validity. A significant linear relationship was observed among the FTND-C, QSU-brief-C, and HRFS-C (p < .001).

CONCLUSION

The motivation measured by the HRFS-C can significantly predict nicotine dependence and craving in the smoking population. The HRFS-C can be used to carry out targeted interventions for addicted patients (e.g., motivational enhancement therapy).

Trans-diagnostic measurement of impulsivity and compulsivity: A review of self-report tools

INTRODUCTION

Impulsivity and compulsivity are important constructs, relevant to understanding behaviour in the general population, as well as in particular mental disorders (e.g. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder). The current paper provides a narrative review of self-report impulsivity and compulsivity scales.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted using the following terms: ("impulsivity" OR "compulsivity") AND ("self-report" OR "questionnaire" OR "psychometric" OR "scale").

RESULTS

25 impulsive and 11 compulsive scales were identified, which varied considerably in psychometric properties, convenience, and validity. For impulsivity, the most commonly used scales were the BIS and the UPPS-P, whilst for compulsivity, the Padua Inventory was commonly used. The majority of compulsivity scales measured OCD symptoms (obsessions and compulsions) rather than being trans-diagnostic or specific to compulsivity (as opposed to obsessions). Scales capable of overcoming these limitations were highlighted.

DISCUSSION

This review provides clarity regarding relative advantages and disadvantages of different scales relevant to the measurement of impulsivity and compulsivity in many contexts. Areas for further research and refinement are highlighted.

Reward-Related Attentional Capture Moderates the Association between Fear-Driven Motives and Heavy Drinking

BACKGROUND

To date, there has been little investigation on how motivational and cognitive mechanisms interact to influence problematic drinking behaviours. Towards this aim, the current study examined whether reward-related attentional capture is associated with reward, fear (relief), and habit drinking motives, and further, whether it interacts with these motives in relation to problematic drinking patterns.

METHODS

Ninety participants (mean age = 34.8 years, SD = 9.1, 54% male) who reported having consumed alcohol in the past month completed an online visual search task that measured reward-related attentional capture as well as the Habit Reward Fear Scale, a measure of drinking motives. Participants also completed measures of psychological distress, impulsivity, compulsive drinking, and consumption items of Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. Regression analyses examined the associations between motives for alcohol consumption and reward-related attentional capture, as well as the associations between reward-related attentional capture, motives, and their interaction, with alcohol consumption and problems.

RESULTS

Greater reward-related attentional capture was associated with greater reward motives. Further, reward-related attentional capture also interacted with fear motives in relation to alcohol consumption. Follow-up analyses showed that this interaction was driven by greater fear motives being associated with heavier drinking among those with lower reward-related attentional capture (i.e., "goal-trackers").

CONCLUSION

These findings have implications for understanding how cognition may interact with motives in association with problematic drinking. Specifically, the findings highlight different potential pathways to problematic drinking according to an individual's cognitive-motivational profile and may inform tailored interventions to target profile-specific mechanisms. Finally, these findings offer support for contemporary models of addiction that view excessive goal-directed behaviour under negative affect as a critical contributor to addictive behaviours.

Saracatinib Fails to Reduce Alcohol-Seeking and Consumption in Mice and Human Participants

More effective treatments to reduce pathological alcohol drinking are needed. The glutamatergic system and the NMDA receptor (NMDAR), in particular, are implicated in behavioral and molecular consequences of chronic alcohol use, making the NMDAR a promising target for novel pharmacotherapeutics. Ethanol exposure upregulates Fyn, a protein tyrosine kinase that indirectly modulates NMDAR signaling by phosphorylating the NR2B subunit. The Src/Fyn kinase inhibitor saracatinib (AZD0530) reduces ethanol self-administration and enhances extinction of goal-directed ethanol-seeking in mice. However, less is known regarding how saracatinib affects habitual ethanol-seeking. Moreover, no prior studies have assessed the effects of Src/Fyn kinase inhibitors on alcohol-seeking or consumption in human participants. Here, we tested the effects of saracatinib on alcohol consumption and craving/seeking in two species, including the first trial of an Src/Fyn kinase inhibitor to reduce drinking in humans. Eighteen male C57BL/6NCrl mice underwent operant conditioning on a variable interval schedule to induce habitual responding for 10% ethanol/0.1% saccharin. Next, mice received 5 mg/kg saracatinib or vehicle 2 h or 30 min prior to contingency degradation to measure habitual responding. In the human study, 50 non-treatment seeking human participants who drank heavily and met DSM-IV criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence were randomized to receive 125 mg/day saracatinib (n = 33) or placebo (n = 17). Alcohol Drinking Paradigms (ADP) were completed in a controlled research setting: before and after 7-8 days of treatment. Each ADP involved consumption of a priming drink of alcohol (0.03 mg%) followed by ad libitum access (3 h) to 12 additional drinks (0.015 g%); the number of drinks consumed and craving (Alcohol Urge Questionnaire) were recorded. In mice, saracatinib did not affect habitual ethanol seeking or consumption at either time point. In human participants, no significant effects of saracatinib on alcohol craving or consumption were identified. These results in mice and humans suggest that Fyn kinase inhibition using saracatinib, at the doses tested here, may not reduce alcohol consumption or craving/seeking among those habitually consuming alcohol, in contrast to reports of positive effects of saracatinib in individuals that seek ethanol in a goal-directed manner. Nevertheless, future studies should confirm these negative findings using additional doses and schedules of saracatinib administration.

A transdiagnostic perspective of constructs underlying obsessive-compulsive and related disorders: An international Delphi consensus study

BACKGROUND

The Research Domain Criteria seeks to bridge knowledge from neuroscience with clinical practice by promoting research into valid neurocognitive phenotypes and dimensions, irrespective of symptoms and diagnoses as currently conceptualized. While the Research Domain Criteria offers a vision of future research and practice, its 39 functional constructs need refinement to better target new phenotyping efforts. This study aimed to determine which Research Domain Criteria constructs are most relevant to understanding obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, based on a consensus between experts in the field of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders.

METHODS

Based on a modified Delphi method, 46 experts were recruited from Australia, Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas. Over three rounds, experts had the opportunity to review their opinion in light of feedback from the previous round, which included how their response compared to other experts and a summary of comments given.

RESULTS

Thirty-four experts completed round one, of whom 28 (82%) completed round two and 24 (71%) completed round three. At the final round, four constructs were endorsed by ⩾75% of experts as 'primary constructs' and therefore central to understanding obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. Of these constructs, one came from the Positive Valence System (Habit), two from the Cognitive Control System (Response Selection/Inhibition and Performance Monitoring) and the final construct was an additional item suggested by experts (Compulsivity).

CONCLUSION

This study identified four Research Domain Criteria constructs that, according to experts, cut across different obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. These constructs represent key areas for future investigation, and may have potential implications for clinical practice in terms of diagnostic processes and therapeutic management of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders.

Capturing habitualness of drinking and smoking behavior in humans

BACKGROUND

Recent findings suggest that overreliance on habit may be common in individuals diagnosed with addiction. To advance our understanding of habit in clinical samples and from behavioral measures, this study examines the interrelations between self-reported habit index for smoking and drinking as well as behavioral measures of intraindividual variability in smoking and drinking.

METHODS

Treatment-seeking heavy drinking smokers (N = 416) completed the Self-Report Habit Index (SRHI) adapted for both smoking and drinking. "Behavioral habitualness" was computed from the degree of intraindividual variability in patterns of smoking and drinking over the past month. Using the 28-day Timeline-Follow Back (TLFB) interview, we derived two measures of intraindividual variability: interclass correlation (ICC) and autocorrelation [AR(7) coefficients].

RESULTS

Self-report measures of habit were robustly associated with clinical severity of drinking and smoking with higher habit scores indicating greater severity of drinking and smoking, respectively. ICC and AR(7) coefficients, the behavioral measure of "patterness" and putative habit, were not associated with SRHI scores. While ICC for smoking was associated with higher nicotine dependence scores, this pattern was not found for drinking ICC and alcohol problem severity.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the construct validity of the self-report measures of habit for smoking and drinking, as well an initial evaluation of behavioral measure of smoking "patterness" as a potential proxy for habit smoking. Because habit represents a complex phenotype with limited clinical translation, additional studies capturing a wider range of substance use severity and coupled with brain-based validation methods are warranted.

Reward, Relief and Habit Drinking: Initial Validation of a Brief Assessment Tool

AIMS

Alcohol use disorder is highly heterogeneous. One approach to understanding this heterogeneity is the identification of drinker subtypes. A candidate classification consists of reward and relief subtypes. The current study examines a novel self-report measure of reward, relief, and habit drinking for its clinical correlates and subjective response (SR) to alcohol administration.

METHODS

Non-treatment-seeking heavy drinkers (n = 140) completed the brief reward, relief, habit drinking scale (RRHDS). A subset of this sample (n = 67) completed an intravenous alcohol administration. Individuals were classified into drinker subtypes. A crowdsourced sample of heavy drinkers (n = 187) completed the RRHDS and a validated reward relief drinking scale to compare drinking classification results.

RESULTS

The majority of the sample was classified as reward drinkers (n = 100), with fewer classified as relief (n = 19) and habit (n = 21) drinkers. Relief and habit drinkers reported greater tonic alcohol craving compared to reward drinkers. Reward drinkers endorsed drinking for enhancement, while relief drinkers endorsed drinking for coping. Regarding the alcohol administration, the groups differed in negative mood, such that relief/habit drinkers reported a decrease in negative mood during alcohol administration, compared to reward drinkers. The follow-up crowdsourcing study found a 62% agreement in reward drinker classification between measures and replicated the tonic craving findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that reward drinkers are dissociable from relief/habit drinkers using the brief measure. However, relief and habit drinkers were not successfully differentiated, which suggests that these constructs may overlap phenotypically. Notably, measures of dysphoric mood were better at detecting group differences than measures capturing alcohol's rewarding effects.