One-year follow-up study of relapsing-remitting MS patients' cognitive performances: Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test's susceptibility to change

A Prospective, Observational, Cohort Study to Assess the Efficacy and Safety of Prolonged-Release Fampridine in Cognition, Fatigue, Depression, and Quality of Life in Multiple Sclerosis Patients: The FAMILY Study

Introduction

The efficacy of prolonged-release fampridine (PR-FAM) may extend in multiple sclerosis (MS) beyond walking ability. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of PR-FAM treatment on cognition, fatigue, depression, and quality of life (QoL) in adult patients with MS in a real-world setting.

Methods

FAMILY was a multi-center, prospective, observational, real-world cohort study of MS patients receiving PR-FAM in the outpatient setting. Patients were treated as per PR-FAM’s local prescribing information for 6 months. Standardized protocols and questionnaires were used to evaluate changes in cognition (PASAT; Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test), fatigue (MFIS; Modified Fatigue Impact Scale), depression (BDI-II; Beck Depression Inventory-II) and QoL (MusiQoL; MS International Quality-of-Life questionnaire, MSIS-29; Multiple Sclerosis Impact Scale: PHYS and PSYCH subscales) at 3 and 6 months compared to baseline.

Results

In total, 102 eligible patients from 8 sites in Greece were analysed, of whom 92 completed the study and 10 discontinued. At 6 months, PR-FAM treatment resulted in improvements from baseline in PASAT-3′′ (p = 0.044), MFIS (p < 0.001), BDI-II (p < 0.001), MusiQoL (p < 0.001) and MSIS-29-PHYS (p = 0.012) and MSIS-PSYCH (p < 0.001). A positive effect was evident already at 3 months in PASAT-3′′ (ns), MFIS (p = 0.020), BDI-II (p = 0.034), MusiQoL (p = 0.001), MSIS-29-PHYS (ns) and MSIS-29-PSYCH (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

This observational study provides new data to the current literature in support of PR-FAM’s positive effects in cognition, fatigue, depression, and QoL in a large, heterogeneous group of Greek MS patients in the real-world setting.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier, NCT03164018.

Supplementary Material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s12325-020-01606-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Multiple Sclerosis Patients Valuing Their Own Health Status: Valuation and Psychometric Properties of the 15D

An ongoing debate on decision and cost-utility analyses is whether to use preferences of general public or patients. The aim of this study was to replicate the valuation procedure of the multi-attribute utility generic measure, 15D, using a sample of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and to assess its psychometric properties. Consecutive outpatient MS patients were recruited from two MS centers in Greece. The three-stage valuation procedure was applied and, with the use of elicited preference weights, an MS patients' algorithm was developed. The original Finnish value set derived from healthy individuals was also used to calculate scores and a comparison between the two algorithms was made. A total of 64 MS patients were evaluated. The 15D scores obtained with the MS patients' valuation algorithm were higher than the original one. The derived utilities differed significantly with respect to age, depressive symptoms, Expanded Disability Status Scale score and clinical form. MS patients indicated as most important domains mobility, mental functioning and vitality. Cronbach's alpha was estimated 0.876 and correlations between relevant dimensions of the instruments were moderate to high. The 15D was generally feasible and reliable in patients with MS and the valuation system yielded acceptable psychometric properties.

Cognitive impairment in MS: rehabilitation approaches

Cognitive deficits have been reported in 45%-70% of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Like other symptoms of MS, cognitive deficits are highly variable. Slowed information processing and memory and learning dysfunction are regarded as the most frequent cognitive deficits in MS. Both white and gray matter damages have been suggested to contribute to cognitive impairments in MS. There is no direct relationship between cognitive deficits and physical disability, disease duration or course of the disease. In addition to cognitive impairments, neuropsychiatric symptoms are observed in MS, the most common being alterations in mood state. Neurobehavioral deficits have multidimensional effects on the activities of daily living and quality of life. Consequently, attention should be paid to early diagnosis and treatment. Based on studies on cognitive retraining and more multimodal neuropsychological rehabilitation, both approaches show promise in the treatment of cognitive impairments and their harmful effects. This review introduces the frequency and characteristics of cognitive impairments, as well as main findings on the effects of neuropsychological rehabilitation in MS.

Is neuropsychological rehabilitation effective in multiple sclerosis?

Cognitive deficits are common symptoms in multiple sclerosis (MS), and evident even in the early stages of the disease. Cognitive functions most frequently affected are information processing, memory and learning, and attention. Deficits may have a multidimensional impact on quality of life by weakening the ability to work, impairing social functioning and increasing the strain of the caregiver. To date, no effective pharmacological treatment for cognitive decline has been established, although there is some evidence suggesting that disease-modifying therapies may help to preserve cognitive function. Neuropsychological rehabilitation aims at alleviation of the negative effects of cognitive impairments and has been found to be effective in patients with stroke and traumatic brain injury. This paper discusses the evidence on neuropsychological rehabilitation in MS based on a recent systematic literature review and suggests a model for alleviating the effects of cognitive impairments in MS. The preliminary research evidence on the effects of neuropsychological rehabilitation in MS is positive: rehabilitation may have favorable effects on patients' cognitive performance and coping with cognitive impairments. In clinical practice, the diagnostics and treatment of cognitive impairments should be improved. Neuropsychological rehabilitation should be an important part of a rehabilitation regimen in MS.

Neuropsychological rehabilitation for multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

This is an update of the Cochrane review 'Neuropsychological rehabilitation for multiple sclerosis' (first published in The Cochrane Library 2011, Issue 11).Cognitive deficits are a common manifestation of multiple sclerosis (MS) and have a significant effect on the patient's quality of life. Alleviation of the harmful effects caused by these deficits should be a major goal of MS research and practice. 

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of neuropsychological/cognitive rehabilitation on health-related factors, such as cognitive performance and emotional well-being in patients with MS.

SEARCH METHODS

The Cochrane Multiple Sclerosis and Rare Diseases of the Central Nervous System Group Trials Search Co-ordinator searched their Specialised Register which, among other sources, contains trials from CENTRAL (The Cochrane Library 2013, Issue 2), MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, LILACS, PEDro and clinical trials registries (28 May 2013). We contacted authors of the studies for additional information.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-randomised trials evaluating the effects of neuropsychological rehabilitation in MS compared to other interventions or no intervention.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors individually judged the eligibility of the included studies, assessed risk of bias and extracted data. We combined results quantitatively in meta-analyses according to the intervention type: 1) cognitive training and 2) cognitive training combined with other neuropsychological rehabilitation methods.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty studies (986 participants; 966 MS participants and 20 healthy controls) fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The mean age of the participants was 44.6 years, mean length of education was 12.3 years and 70% of the participants were women. Most of the participants had a relapsing-remitting course of disease. The mean Expanded Disability Status Scale score was 3.2 and the mean duration of disease was 14.0 years.On the basis of these studies, we found low-level evidence that neuropsychological rehabilitation reduces cognitive symptoms in MS. Cognitive training was found to improve memory span (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.54, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.20 to 0.88, P = 0.002) and working memory (SMD 0.33, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.57, P = 0.006). Cognitive training combined with other neuropsychological rehabilitation methods was found to improve attention (SMD 0.15, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.28, P = 0.03), immediate verbal memory (SMD 0.31, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.54, P = 0.008) and delayed memory (SMD 0.22, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.42, P = 0.03). There was no evidence of an effect of neuropsychological rehabilitation on emotional functions.The overall quality, as well as the comparability of the included studies, was relatively low due to methodological limitations and heterogeneity of interventions and outcome measures. Although most of the pooled results in the meta-analyses yielded no significant findings, 18 of the 20 studies showed some evidence of positive effects when the studies were individually analysed.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This review found low-level evidence for positive effects of neuropsychological rehabilitation in MS. The interventions and outcome measures included in the review were heterogeneous, which limited the comparability of the studies. New trials may therefore change the strength and direction of the evidence.

Neuropsychological rehabilitation for multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Cognitive deficits are a common manifestation in multiple sclerosis (MS) and have a wide effect on the patient's quality of life. Alleviation of the harmful effects caused by these deficits should be a major goal of MS research and practice.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this review was to evaluate the effects of neuropsychological/cognitive rehabilitation in MS by conducting a systematic review.

SEARCH METHODS

A systematic literature search was carried out on reports drawn from Cochrane MS Group Specialised Register (To October 2010), Evidence-based medicine (EBM) reviews (To September 2010), MEDLINE (January 1950 to September 2010), EMBASE (1974 to September 2010), PsycINFO (January 1806 to September 2010), WEB OF SCIENCE (WOS) (January 1986 to September 2010), CINAHL (1982 to September 2010), and identified from the references in these reports.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised Controlled Trials (RCTs) and quasi-randomised trials evaluating the effects of neuropsychological rehabilitation in MS compared to other interventions or no intervention at all and employing neuropsychological rehabilitation methods and outcome measures were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors individually judged the relevance, risk of bias, and content of the included studies. Results were combined quantitatively with meta-analyses according to the intervention type: 1) Cognitive training and 2) Cognitive training combined with other neuropsychological rehabilitation methods. In addition, narrative presentation was used in reporting the results of those studies which were inappropriate to be included in the meta-analysis.

MAIN RESULTS

Fourteen studies (770 MS patients) fulfilled the inclusion criteria. On the basis of these studies, low level evidence was found that neuropsychological rehabilitation reduces cognitive symptoms in MS. Cognitive training was found to improve memory span (standardised mean difference 0.54 (95% confidence interval 0.2 to 0.88, P = 0.002)), working memory (standardised mean difference 0.33 (95% confidence interval 0.09 to 0.57, P = 0.006)), and immediate visual memory (standardised mean difference 0.32 (95% confidence interval 0.04 to 0.6, P = 0.02)). There was no evidence of an effect of cognitive training combined with other neuropsychological rehabilitation methods on cognitive or emotional functions. The overall quality as well as the comparability of the included studies were relatively low due to methodological limitations and heterogeneity of outcome measures. Although most of the pooled results in the meta-analyses yielded no significant findings, twelve of the fourteen studies showed some evidence of positive effects when the studies were individually analysed.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The review indicates low level evidence for the positive effects of neuropsychological rehabilitation in MS. Interventions included in the review were heterogeneous. Consequently, clinical inferences can basically be drawn from single studies. Therefore, new trials may change the strength and direction of the evidence. To further strengthen the evidence, well-designed high quality studies are needed. In this systematic review, recommendations are given for improving the quality of future studies on the effects of neuropsychological rehabilitation in MS.

Relevance of cognitive deterioration in early relapsing-remitting MS: a 3-year follow-up study

OBJECTIVE

To assess longitudinally cognitive functioning in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) patients and its relationship with clinical and MRI variables.

METHODS

Early RRMS patients and matched healthy controls were assessed in parallel in three testing sessions over 3 years, using the Rao's Brief Repeatable Battery of Neuropsychological Tests. Patients also underwent an MRI analysis of T2-weighted lesion volume (T2LV), number of gadolinium-enhanced lesions and whole brain atrophy. Forty-nine RRMS patients (mean age 36.9 ± 8.9 years; mean disease duration 2.9 ± 1.7 years, mean Expanded Disability Status Scale, 1.7 ± 0.7) and 56 healthy controls were recruited.

RESULTS

At baseline, cognitive impairment was detected in 15 patients (30.6%). After 3 years, cognitive functioning worsened in the 29.3% of patients, whereas Expanded Disability Status Scale progression was observed in only three patients. The most sensitive test to detect cognitive deterioration over time was the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT). Only the presence of moderate cognitive impairment at baseline predicted further cognitive deterioration (p = 0.03). Among MRI variables, T2LV showed a weak to moderate relationship with some cognitive tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

Over a 3-year period cognitive deterioration can be expected in approximately one-third of MS patients with relatively short disease duration. The SDMT is particularly suitable for longitudinal assessment of MS-related cognitive changes.

Cognitive reserve protects against cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis

Cognitive reserve theory helps to explain the neuropsychological expression of neurologic disease (e.g., Alzheimer's disease; Stern, 2006). Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurologic disease characterized by information processing inefficiency and verbal learning and memory deficits. The current study is the first to investigate whether higher cognitive reserve moderates the relationship between MS and cognitive functioning. A word-reading proxy of premorbid intelligence was used to estimate cognitive reserve for 58 persons with MS and 43 healthy controls. Dependent measures of simple processing efficiency, complex information processing efficiency, and verbal learning and memory were administered. There were significant Group x Cognitive Reserve interactions for complex information processing efficiency and verbal learning and memory, such that persons with MS demonstrated deficits relative to controls at lower, but not higher, levels of reserve. No such interaction was found for simple processing efficiency. The protective influence of higher cognitive reserve against disease-related cognitive deficits is discussed.