Prehospital vs. emergency department pronouncement of death: a cost analysis

Application of adult prehospital resuscitation rules to pediatric out of hospital cardiac arrest

BACKGROUND

Prehospital termination of resuscitation (TOR) rules can be recommended for adults with out-of-hospital cardiac arrests (OHCAs). This study aimed to investigate whether adult basic life support (BLS) and advanced life support (ALS) TOR rules can predict neurologically unfavorable one-month outcome for pediatric OHCA patients.

METHODS

From a nationwide population-based observational cohort study, we extracted data of consecutive pediatric OHCA patients (0-17 years old) from January 1, 2005, to December 31, 2011. The BLS TOR rule has three criteria, whereas the ALS TOR rule includes two additional criteria. We selected pediatric OHCA patients that met all criteria for each TOR rule and calculated the specificity and positive predictive value (PPV) of each TOR rule for identifying pediatric OHCA patients who did not have neurologically favorable one-month outcome.

RESULTS

Of the 12,740 pediatric OHCA patients eligible for the evaluation of the BLS TOR rule, 10,803 patients met the BLS TOR rule, with a specificity of 0.785 and a PPV of 0.987 for predicting a lack of neurologically favorable one-month survival. Of the 2,091 for the ALS TOR rule, 381 patients met the ALS TOR rule, with a specificity of 0.986 and a PPV of 0.997 for predicting neurologically unfavorable one-month outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

The adult BLS and ALS TOR rules had a high PPV for predicting pediatric OHCA patients without a neurologically favorable survival at one month after onset.

Evaluation of the Uptake of a Prehospital Cardiac Arrest Termination of Resuscitation Rule

BACKGROUND

Previous research has focused on creation and validation of a basic life support rule for termination of resuscitation (TOR) in nontraumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) to identify patients who will not be successfully resuscitated or will not have a favorable outcome. Although now widely implemented, translational research regarding in-field compliance with TOR criteria and barriers to use is scarce.

OBJECTIVES

This project aimed to assess compliance rates, barriers to use, and effect on ambulance transport rates after implementing TOR criteria for OHCA.

METHODS

Retrospective chart review of patients ≥ 18 years with OHCA. Data from regional Emergency Medical Services agencies were collected to determine TOR rule compliance for patients meeting criteria, barriers to use, and effect of a TOR rule on ambulance transport.

RESULTS

There were 552 patients with OHCAs identified. Ninety-one patients met TOR criteria, with paramedics requesting TOR in 81 (89%) cases and physicians granting requests in 65 (80.2%) cases. Perceived barriers to TOR compliance included distraught families, nearby advanced-care paramedics, and unusual circumstances. Reasons for physician refusal of TOR requests included hospital proximity, patient not receiving epinephrine, and poor communication connection to paramedics. Total high priority transports decreased 15.6% after implementation of a TOR rule.

CONCLUSIONS

The study found high compliance after implementation of a TOR rule and identified potentially addressable barriers to TOR use. Appropriate application of a TOR rule led to reduction in high-priority ambulance transports, potentially reducing futile use of health care resources and risk of ambulance motor vehicle collisions.

Diagnostic performance of the basic and advanced life support termination of resuscitation rules: A systematic review and diagnostic meta-analysis

AIM

To minimize termination of resuscitation (TOR) in potential survivors, the desired positive predictive value (PPV) for mortality and specificity of universal TOR-rules are ≥99%. In lack of a quantitative summary of the collective evidence, we performed a diagnostic meta-analysis to provide an overall estimate of the performance of the basic and advanced life support (BLS and ALS) termination rules.

DATA SOURCES

We searched PubMed/EMBASE/Web-of-Science/CINAHL and Cochrane (until September 2019) for studies on either or both TOR-rules in non-traumatic, adult cardiac arrest. PRISMA-DTA-guidelines were followed.

RESULTS

There were 19 studies: 16 reported on the BLS-rule (205.073 patients, TOR-advice in 57%), 11 on the ALS-rule (161.850 patients, TOR-advice in 24%). Pooled specificities were 0.95 (0.89-0.98) and 0.98 (0.95-1.00) respectively, with a PPV of 0.99 (0.99-1.00) and 1.00 (0.99-1.00). Specificities were significantly lower in non-Western than Western regions: 0.84 (0.73-0.92) vs. 0.99 (0.97-0.99), p < 0.001 for the BLS rule. For the ALS-rule, specificities were 0.94 (0.87-0.97) vs. 1.00 (0.99-1.00), p < 0.001. For non-Western regions, 16 (BLS) or 6 (ALS) out of 100 potential survivors met the TOR-criteria. Meta-regression demonstrated decreasing performance in settings with lower rates of in-field shocks.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite an overall high PPV, this meta-analysis highlights a clinically important variation in diagnostic performance of the BLS and ALS TOR-rules. Lower specificity and PPV were seen in non-Western regions, and populations with lower rates of in-field defibrillation. Improved insight in the varying diagnostic performance is highly needed, and local validation of the rules is warranted to prevent in-field termination of potential survivors.

One-year survival rate and healthcare costs after cardiac arrest in Taiwan, 2006-2012

OBJECTIVES

The annual increase in costs and the quality of life of survivors of cardiac arrest are major concerns. This study used National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD) of Taiwan to evaluate the 1-year survival rate and the annual healthcare costs of survivors after cardiac arrest.

METHODS

This retrospective, fixed-cohort study conducted from 2006 to 2012, involved 2 million individuals randomly selected from the NHIRD of Taiwan. Adult patients at least 18 years old who were diagnosed with cardiac arrest were enrolled. Survival was followed up for 1 year.

RESULTS

In total, 2,256 patients were enrolled. The survivor cohort accounted for 4% (89/2256) of the study population. There were no significant differences in the demographic characteristics of the survival and non-survival cohorts, with the exceptions of gender (male: survival vs. non-survival, 50.6% vs. 64.5%, p = 0.007), diabetes mellitus (49.4% vs. 35.8%, p = 0.009), and acute coronary syndrome (44.9% vs. 31.9%, p = 0.010). Only 38 (1.7%) patients survived for > 1 year. The mean re-admission to hospital during the 1-year follow up was 73.5 (SD: 110.2) days. The mean healthcare cost during the 1-year follow up was $12,953. Factors associated with total healthcare costs during the 1-year follow up were as follows: city or county of residence, being widowed, and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (city or county of residence, β: -23,604, p < 0.001; being widowed, β: 25,588, p = 0.049; COPD, β: 14,438, p = 0.024).

CONCLUSIONS

There was a great burden of the annual healthcare costs of survivors of cardiac arrest. Socioeconomic status and comorbidity were major confounders of costs. The outcome measures of cardiac arrest should extend beyond the death, and encompass destitution. These findings add to our knowledge of the health economics and indicate future research about healthcare of cardiac arrest survivors.

Reducing the futile transportation of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests: a retrospective validation

Objectives:

The primary aim was to measure the predictive value of a termination of resuscitation guideline that allows for pre-hospital termination of adult cardiac arrests of presumed cardiac aetiology where the patient did not present in a shockable cardiac rhythm and did not achieve return of spontaneous circulation on-scene. The secondary objective was to compare the effectiveness of that guideline with existing basic life support and advanced life support guidelines.

Methods:

A retrospective review of 2139 adult out-of-hospital primary cardiac arrest patients transported to hospital by a single ambulance trust during a 12-month period between 1 April 2014 and 31 March 2015.

Results:

Application of the new guideline identified 832 for termination, from which three (0.4%) survived, resulting in a specificity of 99.1% (95% CI: 97.4% to 99.8%), PPV of 99.6% (95% CI: 99% to 99.9%), sensitivity of 46.5% (95% CI: 44.1% to 48.8%) and NPV of 25.6% (95% CI: 23.2% to 28.1%). The transport rate was 60.7%, compared to 72.8% for the basic life support guideline and 95.2% for the advanced life support guideline.

Conclusions:

Within the tested cohort, a reduction of 39.3% in transport of adult out-of-hospital primary cardiac arrest of presumed cardiac aetiology could have been achieved if using a termination of resuscitation guideline that allows for termination on-scene when the patient presented in a non-shockable rhythm and there has been no return of spontaneous circulation. These guidelines require prospective validation, but may identify more futile transportations than other previously validated guidelines.

Measuring the impact of emergency medical services (EMS) on out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survival in a developing country: A key metric for EMS systems' performance

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) can be used to evaluate the overall performance of the emergency medical services' (EMS) system. This study assessed the impact of EMS on OHCA survival rates in a setting where the prehospital system is underdeveloped.A retrospective chart review was carried out over a 5-year period of all adult OHCA patients admitted to the emergency department (ED) of a tertiary care center in Lebanon.A total of 271 patients with OHCA (179 [66.1%] men, mean age of 69.9 [standard deviation = 15.0 years] were enrolled. The most common OHCA location was residence/home (58.7%). The majority of arrests were witnessed (51.7%) with 6.1% witnessed by EMS; 211 patients (75.6%) were transported to the ED by EMS. Prehospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) was done by EMS for 43.2% of the patients, whereas only 4.4% received CPR from a family member/bystander. Prehospital automated external defibrillator use was documented in 1.5% of cases in the prehospital setting. Only 2 patients had return of spontaneous circulation prior to ED arrival. Most patients (96.7%) were resuscitated in the ED. Patients presented to the ED mostly in asystole (79.3%). Forty-three patients (15.9%) survived to hospital admission and 13 (4.8%) were discharged alive with over half of them (53.8%) had a good neurological outcome upon discharge (cerebral performance category 1 or 2).Survival of EMS-treated OHCA victims in Lebanon is not as expected. Medical oversight of EMS activities is needed to link EMS activities to clinical outcomes and improve survival from cardiac arrest in Lebanon.

Health care costs related to out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest in Japan

OBJECTIVES

Although cost analyses for emergency care are essential, data on costs of care for out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest (OHCA) are scarce. The present study aimed to analyze health care costs related to OHCA using a nationwide administrative database in Japan.

METHODS

Using the Diagnosis Procedure Combination database in Japan, we identified OHCA patients who were transported to 779 emergency medical centres between July and December in 2008 and 2009. We assessed patient survival and discharge status, receipt of specific treatments, and costs of in-hospital care.

RESULTS

A total of 21,750 OHCA patients were identified. Overall, 59.6% were males, and the average age was 70.3 years. Of them, 1394 (6.4%) resulted in death without attempted resuscitation after hospital arrival (Group A), 14,973 (69.0%) died on admission day despite resuscitation attempts (Group B), 3680 (17.0%) died at ≥2 days after admission despite resuscitation attempts (Group C), 785 (3.6%) survived and were discharged to home (Group D) and 873 (4.0%) survived and discharged to other than home (Group E). The median total costs were $434, $1735, $4869, $28,097 and $31,161 in Groups A to E, respectively. Positive survival status, longer hospital stay and receipt of specific treatments were significant predictors of higher total costs. After adjustment for these factors, higher age was associated with lower costs.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings in the present study add further evidence to existing knowledge about healthcare costs related to OHCA.

2010: the emergency medical services literature in review

Emergency physicians, specialists, and primary care doctors across the health care delivery spectrum remain actively engaged in the provision of medical oversight for emergency medical services (EMS) systems, a vital link in the medical continuum of care. Practicing emergency physicians, regardless of their level of formal EMS training, interface with EMS system components and providers on a regular basis. It is important to remain aware of trends and practice patterns that have the potential to affect the care of emergency patients. PubMed was used to find articles for this review. The authors included EMS articles from 2010 felt applicable to all emergency physicians that fit the general topics discussed in this review. Some key articles from 2009 were also included. Case series were generally excluded. The selection is by no means an attempt to single out the best research articles. Like a single 12-lead electrocardiographic (ECG) tracing, this review represents a “snapshot” of current discussions in the EMS community. Prehospital medicine is a dynamic discipline, and its practice patterns are not identical to those found in a hospital emergency department (ED). The purpose of this literature review is to familiarize emergency physicians with some of the ongoing discussions in the prehospital literature.

Current termination of resuscitation (TOR) guidelines predict neurologically favorable outcome in Japan

BACKGROUND

It is unclear whether the basic life support (BLS) and advanced life support (ALS) pre-hospital termination of resuscitation (TOR) rules developed in North America can be applied successfully to patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) in other countries.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the performance of the BLS and ALS TOR in Japan.

METHODS

Retrospective nationwide, population-based, observational cohort study of consecutive OHCA patients with emergency responder resuscitation attempts from 1 January 2005 to 31 December 2009 in Japan. The BLS TOR rule has 3 criteria whereas the ALS TOR rule includes 2 additional criteria. We extracted OHCA patients meeting all criteria for each TOR rule, and calculated the specificity and positive predictive value (PPV) of each TOR rule for identifying OHCA patients who did not have neurologically favorable one-month survival.

RESULTS

During the study-period, 151,152 cases were available to evaluate the BLS TOR rule, and 137,986 cases to evaluate the ALS TOR rule. Of 113,140 patients that satisfied all three criteria for the BLS TOR rule, 193 (0.2%) had a neurologically favorable one-month survival. The specificity of BLS TOR rule was 0.968 (95% CI: 0.963-0.972), and the PPV was 0.998 (95% CI: 0.998-0.999) for predicting lack of neurologically favorable one-month survival. Of 41,030 patients that satisfied all five criteria for the ALS TOR rule, just 37 (0.1%) had a neurologically favorable one-month survival. The specificity of ALS TOR rule was 0.981 (95% CI: 0.973-0.986), and the PPV was 0.999 (95% CI: 0.998-0.999) for predicting lack of neurologically favorable one-month survival.

CONCLUSIONS

The prehospital BLS and ALS TOR rules performed well in Japan with high specificity and PPV for predicting lack of neurologically favorable one-month survival in Japan. However, the specificity and PPV were not 1000 and we have to develop more specific TOR rules.

Pilot study to determine the feasibility of training Army National Guard medics to perform focused cardiac ultrasonography

OBJECTIVE

To assess the ability of Army National Guard combat medics to perform a limited bedside echocardiography (BE) to determine cardiac activity after a brief training module.

METHODS

Twelve Army National Guard health care specialists trained to the level of emergency medical technician-basic (EMT-B) underwent an educational session consisting of a 5-minute lecture on BE followed by hands-on practical training. After the training session, each medic performed BEs, in either the subxiphoid (SX) or parasternal (PS) location at his or her discretion, on four healthy volunteers. The time required to complete the BE and the anatomic location of the examination (SX vs. PS) was documented. A 3-second video clip representing the best image was recorded for each BE. These clips were subsequently reviewed independently by two of the investigators with experience performing and interpreting BE; each BE was graded on a six-point scale designed for the study, the Cardiac Ultrasound Structural Assessment Scale (CUSAS). A score of 3 or greater was considered to be adequate to assess for the presence of cardiac activity. Where there was disagreement on the CUSAS score, the reviewers viewed the clip together and agreed on a consensus CUSAS score. We calculated the median time to completion and interquartile range (IQR) for each BE, the median CUSAS scores and IQR for examinations performed in the SX and PS locations, and kappa for agreement between the two reviewers on the CUSAS.

RESULTS

A total of 48 BEs were recorded and reviewed. Thirty-seven of 48 (77%) were obtained in the SX location, and 11 of 48 (23%) were obtained in the PS location. Forty-four of 48 (92%) were scored as a 3 or higher on the CUSAS. Median time to completion of a BE was 5.5 seconds (IQR: 3.7-10.9 seconds). The median CUSAS score in the SX location was 4 (IQR: 4-5), and the median CUSAS score in the PS location was 4 (IQR: 4-4). Weighted kappa for the CUSAS was 0.6.

CONCLUSION

With minimal training, the vast majority of the medics in our study were able to rapidly perform a focused BE on live models that was adequate to assess for the presence of cardiac activity.

A qualitative study to identify barriers to local implementation of prehospital termination of resuscitation protocols

BACKGROUND

Despite the existence of national American Heart Association guidelines and 2 termination-of-resuscitation (TOR) rules for ceasing efforts in refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, many emergency medical services agencies in the United States have adopted their own local protocols. Public policies and local perceptions may serve as barriers or facilitators to implementing national TOR guidelines at the local level.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Three focus groups, lasting 90 to 120 minutes, were conducted at the National Association of Emergency Medical Services Physicians meeting in January 2008. Snowball sampling was used to recruit participants. Two reviewers analyzed the data in an iterative process to identify recurrent and unifying themes. We identified 3 distinct groups whose current policies or perceptions may impede efforts to adopt national TOR guidelines: payers who incentivize transport; legislators who create state mandates for transport and allow only narrow use of do-not-resuscitate orders; and communities where cultural norms are perceived to impede termination of resuscitation. Our participants suggested that national organizations, such as the American Heart Association and American College of Emergency Physicians, may serve as potential facilitators in addressing these barriers by taking the lead in asking payers to change reimbursement structures; encouraging legislators to revise laws to reflect the best available medical evidence; and educating the public that rapid transport to the hospital cannot substitute for optimal provision of prehospital care.

CONCLUSIONS

We have identified 3 influential groups who will need to work with national organizations to overcome current policies or prevailing perceptions that may impede implementing national TOR guidelines.

Validation of 3 termination of resuscitation criteria for good neurologic survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest

STUDY OBJECTIVE

Several termination of resuscitation criteria have been proposed to identify patients who will not survive to hospital discharge after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. However, only 1 set has been derived to specifically predict survival to hospital discharge with good neurologic function. The objectives of this study were to externally validate the basic life support (BLS) termination of resuscitation, advanced life support (ALS) termination of resuscitation, and neurologic termination of resuscitation criteria and compare their abilities to predict survival to hospital discharge with good neurologic function after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

METHODS

This was a secondary analysis of the Denver Cardiac Arrest Registry. Consecutive adult nontraumatic cardiac arrest patients in Denver County from January 1, 2003, through December 31, 2004, were included in the study. The BLS termination of resuscitation, ALS termination of resuscitation, and neurologic termination of resuscitation criteria were applied to the cohort, and their predictive proportions and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for each set of criteria.

RESULTS

Of the 715 patients included in this study, the median age was 65 years (interquartile range 52 to 78 years), and 69% were male patients. In addition, 223 (31%) had return of spontaneous circulation, 175 (24%) survived to hospital admission, 58 (8%) survived to hospital discharge, and 42 (6%) survived to hospital discharge with good neurologic function. The proportion of patients with good neurologic survival to hospital discharge correctly identified for continued resuscitation was 100% (95% CI 92% to 100%) for all 3 termination of resuscitation criteria. The proportion of patients with poor neurologic survival to hospital discharge or no survival to hospital discharge correctly identified as eligible for termination of resuscitation was 36% (95% CI 32% to 40%) with the BLS termination of resuscitation criteria, 25% (95% CI 22% to 29%) with the ALS termination of resuscitation criteria, and 6% (95% CI 4% to 8%) with the neurologic termination of resuscitation criteria. Use of the BLS termination of resuscitation criteria would have reduced transport of the largest number of patients.

CONCLUSION

All 3 termination of resuscitation criteria had equally high abilities to identify patients requiring continued resuscitation. The BLS termination of resuscitation criteria, however, had the best combined ability to predict good neurologic survival and poor neurologic survival or death. These findings and the relative simplicity of the BLS termination of resuscitation criteria support their use.

Independent evaluation of an out-of-hospital termination of resuscitation (TOR) clinical decision rule

OBJECTIVES

Recently, investigators described a clinical decision rule for termination of resuscitation (TOR) designed to help determine whether to terminate emergency medical services (EMS) resuscitative efforts for out-of-hospital cardiac arrests (OOHCA). The authors sought to evaluate the hypothesis that TOR would predict no survival for patients in an independent cohort of patients with OOHCA.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort analysis conducted in the state of Arizona. Consecutive, adult, OOHCA were prospectively evaluated from October 2004 through October 2006. A statewide OOHCA database utilizing Utstein-style reporting from 30 different EMS systems was used. Data were abstracted from EMS first care reports and hospital discharge records. The TOR guidelines predict that no survival to hospital discharge will occur if 1) an OOHCA victim does not have return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), 2) no shocks are administered, and 3) the arrest is not witnessed by EMS personnel. Data were entered into a structured database. Continuous data are presented as means (+/-standard deviations [SD]) and categorical data as frequency of occurrence, and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated as appropriate. The primary outcome measure was to determine if any cohort member who met TOR criteria survived to hospital discharge.

RESULTS

There were 2,239 eligible patients; the study group included 2,180 (97.4%) patients for whom the data were complete; mean age was 64 (+/-11) years, and 35% were female. The majority of patients in the study group met at least one or more of the TOR criteria. A total of 2,047 (93.8%) patients suffered from cardiac arrest that was unwitnessed by EMS; 1,653 (75.8%) had an unwitnessed arrest and no ROSC. With respect to TOR, 1,160 of 2,180 (53.2%) patients met all three criteria; only one (0.09%; 95% CI = 0% to 0.5%) survived to hospital discharge.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors evaluated TOR guidelines in an independent, statewide OOHCA database. The results are consistent with the findings of the TOR investigation and suggest that this algorithm is a promising tool for TOR decision-making in the field.

Derivation and evaluation of a termination of resuscitation clinical prediction rule for advanced life support providers

OBJECTIVES

The primary aim was to derive a new termination of resuscitation (TOR) clinical prediction rule for advanced life support paramedics (ALS) and to measure both its pronouncement rate and diagnostic test characteristics. Secondary aims included measuring the test characteristics of a previously derived and published basic life support termination of resuscitation (BLS TOR) clinical prediction rule [Morrison LJ, Visentin LM, Kiss A, et al. Validation of a rule for termination of resuscitation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 2006;355(5):478-87] on the same cohort of patients for comparison purposes.

METHODS

Secondary data analysis of adult cardiac arrests treated by ALS in rural and urban EMS systems participating in the OPALS study (data extracted from Phase III). A previous study for a basic life support termination of resuscitation (BLS TOR) clinical prediction rule proposed Termination of Resuscitation if the patient had no return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) before transport; no shock administered; EMS personnel did not witness the arrest [Morrison LJ, Visentin LM, Kiss A, et al. Validation of a rule for termination of resuscitation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 2006;355(5):478-87]. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between these variables, additional Utstein variables, and the primary outcome of survival to hospital discharge. Diagnostic test characteristics were measured for both the ALS TOR and BLS TOR models on this derivation cohort.

RESULTS

Four thousand six hundred and seventy-three cardiac arrest patients were included; 3098 (66%) were male, mean (S.D.) age 69 (15); 239 (5.1%; 95% CI 4.5-5.8) survived to hospital discharge; 3841 patients had no ROSC (82%) and of these only three survived (0.08%; 95% CI 0.02, 0.23). The final ALS TOR model associated with survival, included: ROSC (OR 260.9; 95% CI 96.3, 706.7), bystander witnessed (OR 2.0; 95% CI 1.3, 3.1), bystander CPR (OR 2.8; 95% CI 1.9, 4.1), EMS witnessed (OR 12.3; 95% CI 7.1, 21.3) and shock prior to transport (OR 6.4; 95% CI 4.1, 10.1). A new ALS TOR clinical prediction rule based on these variables was 100% sensitive (95% CI 99.9-100) for survival and had 100% negative predictive value (95% CI 99.9-100) for death. Under the ALS TOR clinical prediction rule, 30% of patients would be pronounced in the field. The BLS TOR clinical prediction rule, was 100% sensitive (95% CI 99.9, 100), had 100% negative predictive value (95% CI 99.9-100) and the field pronouncement rate was 48%.

CONCLUSION

Cardiac arrest patients may be considered for prehospital ALS TOR when there is no ROSC prior to transport, no shock delivered, no bystander CPR and the arrest was not witnessed by bystanders or EMS. A single EMS termination clinical prediction rule for all levels of providers would be optimal for EMS systems to implement. Prospective evaluation of the ALS TOR clinical prediction rule in the hands of ALS providers will be required before implementation.

Validation of a rule for termination of resuscitation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest

BACKGROUND

We prospectively evaluated a clinical prediction rule to be used by emergency medical technicians (EMTs) trained in the use of an automated external defibrillator for the termination of basic life support resuscitative efforts during out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. The rule recommends termination when there is no return of spontaneous circulation, no shocks are administered, and the arrest is not witnessed by emergency medical-services personnel. Otherwise, the rule recommends transportation to the hospital, in accordance with routine practice.

METHODS

The study included 24 emergency medical systems in Ontario, Canada. All patients 18 years of age or older who had an arrest of presumed cardiac cause and who were treated by EMTs trained in the use of an automated external defibrillator were included. The patients were treated according to standard guidelines. Characteristics of diagnostic tests for the prediction rule were calculated. These characteristics include sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values.

RESULTS

Follow-up data were obtained for all 1240 patients. Of 776 patients with cardiac arrest for whom the rule recommended termination, 4 survived (0.5 percent). The rule had a specificity of 90.2 percent for recommending transport of survivors to the emergency department and had a positive predictive value for death of 99.5 percent when termination was recommended. Implementation of this rule would result in a decrease in the rate of transportation from 100 percent of patients to 37.4 percent. The addition of other criteria (a response interval greater than eight minutes or a cardiac arrest not witnessed by a bystander) would further improve both the specificity and positive predictive value of the rule but would result in the transportation of a larger proportion of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of a clinical prediction rule for the termination of resuscitation may help clinicians decide whether to terminate basic life support resuscitative efforts in patients having an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.