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Zhao W, Xu X, Fang B, Zhang Q, Qian X, Wang S, Liu P, Zhang W, Wang Z, Liu D, Huang Y, Venables DS, Chen W. Development of an incoherent broad-band cavity-enhanced aerosol extinction spectrometer and its application to measurement of aerosol optical hygroscopicity. APPLIED OPTICS 2017; 56:E16-E22. [PMID: 28414337 DOI: 10.1364/ao.56.000e16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We report on the development of a blue light-emitting-diode-based incoherent broad-band cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (IBBCEAS) instrument for the measurement of the aerosol extinction coefficient at λ=461 nm. With an effective absorption path length of 2.8 km, an optimum detection limit of 0.05 Mm-1 (5×10-10 cm-1) was achieved with an averaging time of 84 s. The baseline drift of the developed spectrometer was about ±0.3 Mm-1 over 2.5 h (1σ standard deviation). The performance of the system was evaluated with laboratory-generated monodispersed polystyrene latex (PSL) spheres. The retrieved complex refractive index of PSL agreed well with previously reported values. The relative humidity (RH) dependence of the aerosol extinction coefficient was measured using IBBCEAS. The measured extinction enhancement factor values for 200 nm dry ammonium sulphate particles at different RH were in good agreement with the modeled values. Field performance of the aerosol extinction spectrometer was demonstrated at the Hefei Radiation Observatory site.
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Cao T, Thompson JE. Remote sensing of atmospheric optical depth using a smartphone sun photometer. PLoS One 2014; 9:e84119. [PMID: 24416199 PMCID: PMC3885532 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, smart phones have been explored for making a variety of mobile measurements. Smart phones feature many advanced sensors such as cameras, GPS capability, and accelerometers within a handheld device that is portable, inexpensive, and consistently located with an end user. In this work, a smartphone was used as a sun photometer for the remote sensing of atmospheric optical depth. The top-of-the-atmosphere (TOA) irradiance was estimated through the construction of Langley plots on days when the sky was cloudless and clear. Changes in optical depth were monitored on a different day when clouds intermittently blocked the sun. The device demonstrated a measurement precision of 1.2% relative standard deviation for replicate photograph measurements (38 trials, 134 datum). However, when the accuracy of the method was assessed through using optical filters of known transmittance, a more substantial uncertainty was apparent in the data. Roughly 95% of replicate smart phone measured transmittances are expected to lie within ±11.6% of the true transmittance value. This uncertainty in transmission corresponds to an optical depth of approx. ±0.12–0.13 suggesting the smartphone sun photometer would be useful only in polluted areas that experience significant optical depths. The device can be used as a tool in the classroom to present how aerosols and gases effect atmospheric transmission. If improvements in measurement precision can be achieved, future work may allow monitoring networks to be developed in which citizen scientists submit acquired data from a variety of locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Cao
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, United States of America
| | - Jonathan E. Thompson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Zhao W, Dong M, Chen W, Gu X, Hu C, Gao X, Huang W, Zhang W. Wavelength-Resolved Optical Extinction Measurements of Aerosols Using Broad-Band Cavity-Enhanced Absorption Spectroscopy over the Spectral Range of 445–480 nm. Anal Chem 2013; 85:2260-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ac303174n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Weixiong Zhao
- Anhui Institute of Optics and
Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China
| | - Meili Dong
- Anhui Institute of Optics and
Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China
| | - Weidong Chen
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry
of the Atmosphere, Université du Littoral Côte d’Opale, 189A Avenue Maurice Schumann, 59140
Dunkerque, France
| | - Xuejun Gu
- Anhui Institute of Optics and
Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China
| | - Changjin Hu
- Anhui Institute of Optics and
Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China
| | - Xiaoming Gao
- Anhui Institute of Optics and
Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Anhui Institute of Optics and
Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China
| | - Weijun Zhang
- Anhui Institute of Optics and
Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China
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Ma L, Thompson JE. Optical Properties of Dispersed Aerosols in the Near Ultraviolet (355 nm): Measurement Approach and Initial Data. Anal Chem 2012; 84:5611-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ac3005814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Ma
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, MS1061, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, United States
| | - Jonathan E. Thompson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, MS1061, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, United States
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Mellon D, King SJ, Kim J, Reid JP, Orr-Ewing AJ. Measurements of Extinction by Aerosol Particles in the Near-Infrared Using Continuous Wave Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem A 2011; 115:774-83. [DOI: 10.1021/jp109894x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Mellon
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Simon J. King
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Jin Kim
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan P. Reid
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J. Orr-Ewing
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
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Redmond H, Thompson JE. Evaluation of a quantitative structure–property relationship (QSPR) for predicting mid-visible refractive index of secondary organic aerosol (SOA). Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:6872-82. [DOI: 10.1039/c0cp02270e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Miles REH, Rudić S, Orr-Ewing AJ, Reid JP. Influence of Uncertainties in the Diameter and Refractive Index of Calibration Polystyrene Beads on the Retrieval of Aerosol Optical Properties Using Cavity Ring Down Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem A 2010; 114:7077-84. [DOI: 10.1021/jp103246t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Svemir Rudić
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | | | - Jonathan P. Reid
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
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Dial KD, Hiemstra S, Thompson JE. Simultaneous Measurement of Optical Scattering and Extinction on Dispersed Aerosol Samples. Anal Chem 2010; 82:7885-96. [DOI: 10.1021/ac100617j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathy D. Dial
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, MS1061, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409
| | - Scott Hiemstra
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, MS1061, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409
| | - Jonathan E. Thompson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, MS1061, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409
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Fry ES, Kattawar GW, Strycker BD, Zhai PW. Equivalent path lengths in an integrating cavity: comment. APPLIED OPTICS 2010; 49:575-577. [PMID: 20119003 DOI: 10.1364/ao.49.000575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The equivalent absorption path length in an integrating cavity is examined. In an otherwise excellent paper, Tranchart et al. [Appl. Opt. 35, 7070 (1996)] made an important error in obtaining the expressions for the equivalent path length in an integrating cavity. This error has been propagated through several other publications in the literature. Since the equivalent path length is the sine qua non for obtaining an accurate absorption coefficient when using an integrating cavity, it is our intent here to give the correct formulas to prevent further errors when extracting absorption coefficients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward S Fry
- Department of Physics and Institute for Quantum Studies, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-4242, USA
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Fiddler MN, Begashaw I, Mickens MA, Collingwood MS, Assefa Z, Bililign S. Laser spectroscopy for atmospheric and environmental sensing. SENSORS 2009; 9:10447-512. [PMID: 22303184 PMCID: PMC3267232 DOI: 10.3390/s91210447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2009] [Accepted: 12/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Lasers and laser spectroscopic techniques have been extensively used in several applications since their advent, and the subject has been reviewed extensively in the last several decades. This review is focused on three areas of laser spectroscopic applications in atmospheric and environmental sensing; namely laser-induced fluorescence (LIF), cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS), and photoluminescence (PL) techniques used in the detection of solids, liquids, aerosols, trace gases, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc N. Fiddler
- NOAA-ISET Center, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Israel Begashaw
- Department of Physics, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, 1601 E Market Street, Marteena Hall, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Matthew A. Mickens
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street, New Science Building, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Energy & Environmental Systems Program, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Michael S. Collingwood
- Energy & Environmental Systems Program, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Zerihun Assefa
- NOAA-ISET Center, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street, New Science Building, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (Z.A.); (S.B.); Tel.: +1-336-285-2328/2255; Fax: +1-336-256-2542/ 334-7124
| | - Solomon Bililign
- NOAA-ISET Center, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Department of Physics, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, 1601 E Market Street, Marteena Hall, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (Z.A.); (S.B.); Tel.: +1-336-285-2328/2255; Fax: +1-336-256-2542/ 334-7124
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Butler TJA, Mellon D, Kim J, Litman J, Orr-Ewing AJ. Optical-feedback cavity ring-down spectroscopy measurements of extinction by aerosol particles. J Phys Chem A 2009; 113:3963-72. [PMID: 19249854 DOI: 10.1021/jp810310b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Optical feedback cavity ring-down spectroscopy (OF-CRDS) using a continuous wave distributed feedback diode laser at 1650 nm has been used to measure extinction of light by samples of monodisperse spherical aerosol particles <1 mum in diameter. The OF-CRDS method allows measurements of low levels of extinction of incident light to be made at repetition rates of 1 kHz or greater. A statistical model is proposed to describe the linear relationship between the extinction coefficient (alpha) and its variance (Var(alpha)). Application of this model to experimental measurements of Var(alpha) for a range of alpha values typically below approximately 1 x 10(-6) cm(-1) allows extinction cross-sections for the aerosol particles to be obtained without need for knowledge of the particle number density. Samples of polystyrene spheres with diameters of 400, 500, 600, and 700 nm were used to test the model by comparing extinction cross-sections determined from the experiment with the predictions of Mie theory calculations. Fitting of ring-down decay traces exhibiting amplitude noise to extract cavity ring-down times introduces additional quadratic and higher order polynomial dependencies of the variance that become significant for larger particle number densities and thus extinction coefficients (typically for alpha > 1 x 10(-6) cm(-1) under our experimental conditions). Aggregation of particles at larger number densities is suggested as a further source of variance in the measurements. Extinction cross-sections are severely underestimated if the measurements are made too rapidly to sample uncorrelated distributions of particle numbers and positions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J A Butler
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
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Langridge JM, Ball SM, Shillings AJL, Jones RL. A broadband absorption spectrometer using light emitting diodes for ultrasensitive, in situ trace gas detection. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2008; 79:123110. [PMID: 19123548 DOI: 10.1063/1.3046282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A broadband absorption spectrometer has been developed for highly sensitive and target-selective in situ trace gas measurements. The instrument employs two distinct modes of operation: (i) broadband cavity enhanced absorption spectroscopy (BBCEAS) is used to quantify the concentration of gases in sample mixtures from their characteristic absorption features, and (ii) periodic measurements of the cavity mirrors' reflectivity are made using step-scan phase shift cavity ringdown spectroscopy (PSCRDS). The latter PSCRDS method provides a stand-alone alternative to the more usual method of determining mirror reflectivities by measuring BBCEAS absorption spectra for calibration samples of known composition. Moreover, the instrument's two modes of operation use light from the same light emitting diode transmitted through the cavity in the same optical alignment, hence minimizing the potential for systematic errors between mirror reflectivity determinations and concentration measurements. The ability of the instrument to quantify absorber concentrations is tested in instrument intercomparison exercises for NO(2) (versus a laser broadband cavity ringdown spectrometer) and for H(2)O (versus a commercial hygrometer). A method is also proposed for calculating effective absorption cross sections for fitting the differential structure in BBCEAS spectra due to strong, narrow absorption lines that are under-resolved and hence exhibit non-Beer-Lambert law behavior at the resolution of the BBCEAS measurements. This approach is tested on BBCEAS spectra of water vapor's 4v+delta absorption bands around 650 nm. The most immediate analytical application of the present instrument is in quantifying the concentration of reactive trace gases in the ambient atmosphere. The instrument's detection limits for NO(3) as a function of integration time are considered in detail using an Allan variance analysis. Experiments under laboratory conditions produce a 1sigma detection limit of 0.25 pptv for a 10 s acquisition time, which improves with further signal averaging to 0.09 pptv in 400 s. Finally, an example of the instrument's performance under field work conditions is presented, in this case of measurements of the sum of NO(3)+N(2)O(5) concentrations in the marine boundary layer acquired during the Reactive Halogens in the Marine Boundary Layer field campaign.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin M Langridge
- Department of Chemistry, University Chemical Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
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Butler TJA, Miller JL, Orr-Ewing AJ. Cavity ring-down spectroscopy measurements of single aerosol particle extinction. I. The effect of position of a particle within the laser beam on extinction. J Chem Phys 2007; 126:174302. [PMID: 17492858 DOI: 10.1063/1.2723735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A continuous wave distributed feedback diode laser operating in the near infrared at wavelengths close to 1650 nm has been used to measure the extinction of light by single aerosol particles. The technique of optical feedback cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) was used for measurement of CRDS events at a repetition rate of 1.25 kHz. This very high repetition rate enabled multiple measurements of the extinction of light by single aerosol particles for the first time and demonstrated the dependence of light scattering on the position of a particle within the laser beam. A model is proposed to explain quantitatively this phenomenon. The minimum detectable dimensionless extinction coefficient epsilonmin was determined to be 3x10(-6). Extinction values obtained for single spherical polymer beads from a monodisperse sample of particles of diameter of 4 microm are in near-quantitative agreement with the values calculated by the Mie scattering theory. The deviations from the Mie theory expected for measurement of extinction by CRDS using a continuous wave laser are discussed in the companion paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J A Butler
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
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Thompson JE, Spangler HD. Tungsten source integrated cavity output spectroscopy for the determination of ambient atmospheric extinction coefficient. APPLIED OPTICS 2006; 45:2465-73. [PMID: 16623244 DOI: 10.1364/ao.45.002465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Broadband integrated cavity output spectroscopy (ICOS) utilizing an incoherent tungsten lamp as a spectroscopic source is described. This novel approach has been termed W-ICOS. The technique has been applied to make quantitative measurements of Rayleigh scattering by carbon dioxide between 570 and 590 nm and to make measurements of aerosol and atmospheric extinction. Minimum detectable extinction coefficients (kext) made in a 94 cm optical cavity ranged between 3.4 and 35 Mm(-1) depending on the level of signal averaging employed. The level of sensitivity achieved should allow measurements on static gas samples and regular, quantitative measurements of the atmospheric extinction coefficient.
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Bulatov V, Chen Y, Khalmanov A, Schechter I. Absorption and scattering characterization of airborne microparticulates by a cavity ringdown technique. Anal Bioanal Chem 2005; 384:155-60. [PMID: 16328242 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-005-0173-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2005] [Revised: 10/03/2005] [Accepted: 10/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Nonresonant cavity ringdown laser absorption spectroscopy (CRLAS) was applied for detection and characterization of airborne particulates. Sensitive detection of a variety of aerosols under ambient conditions was achieved. The method provides, for the first time, time-resolved absolute aerosol concentration, with spatial resolution (along a line). The first report on absorption spectroscopy of monodispersed aerosols (in the size range 100-200 nm) is provided, and comparisons are made with the bulk data. The results indicate the possibility of applying CRLAS for selective analysis of aerosols. A new method for estimating the aerosol refraction index is also obtained from the ringdown data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valery Bulatov
- Department of Chemistry, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 32000, Haifa, Israel
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Evanescent field absorption in a passive optical fiber resonator using continuous-wave cavity ring-down spectroscopy. Chem Phys Lett 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2003.11.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M Ball
- University Chemical Laboratory, Cambridge University, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
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Brown SS. Absorption Spectroscopy in High-Finesse Cavities for Atmospheric Studies. Chem Rev 2003; 103:5219-38. [PMID: 14664649 DOI: 10.1021/cr020645c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steven S Brown
- NOAA Aeronomy Lab, R/AL2, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
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Bulatov V, Khalmanov A, Schechter I. Study of the morphology of a laser-produced aerosol plume by cavity ringdown laser absorption spectroscopy. Anal Bioanal Chem 2003; 375:1282-6. [PMID: 12733051 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-003-1775-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2002] [Accepted: 12/17/2002] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cavity ring-down laser absorption spectroscopy (CRLAS) was applied for the first time to detection and characterization of laser breakdown generated aerosols. The method provided time-resolved morphological information on the aerosol plume, which is of importance in laser ablation (LA) and deposition, in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) analysis, and in laser ablation inductively coupled plasma (LA-ICP) methods. This method provides sensitive detection of a variety of aerosols produced under ambient conditions. The morphological investigation revealed that the aerosol density has a reproducible pattern as a function of distance from the surface, although its details depend on time, on geometrical parameters and on the surface characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valery Bulatov
- Department of Chemistry, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 32000, Haifa, Israel
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Atkinson DB, Spillman JL. Alkyl Peroxy Radical Kinetics Measured Using Near-infrared CW−Cavity Ring-down Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem A 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/jp0257597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dean B. Atkinson
- Department of Chemistry, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon 97207-0751
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