Probing heterogeneous electron transfer at an unbiased conductor by scanning electrochemical microscopy in the feedback mode

Effect of Redox Mediators on Corrosion Behavior and Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy Response

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) is widely used to measure local electrochemical reactivity of corroding surfaces. A major criticism of using SECM in feedback mode for corrosion studies is the requirement of an external redox mediator (RM) as it could react with the metal and affect the Nernst potential at the metal-solution interface. Consequently, it becomes challenging to differentiate the interference caused by the RM from the local reactivity of the metal. Herein, a multiscale electrochemical approach is presented to investigate the effect of RM choice on the corroding substrate. Two common RMs, ferrocenemethanol and hexaammineruthenium(III) chloride, were used to perform SECM over copper and aluminum. It was found during macroscale electrochemical measurements that Ru(NH)63+ acted as an oxidant and promoted corrosion. The SECM feedback behavior varied for copper depending on the RM used, suggesting that the corrosion reactions controlled the negative feedback mechanism, not the formation of an insulating passive film. The passivated aluminum surface consistently exhibited negative feedback, regardless of the RM used. SECM approach curves also displayed a distortion in the steady state current, which was caused by the deposition of substrate-generated species on the microelectrode. These deviations in feedback response were accounted for during analysis through incorporation into a finite element model to accurately extract the RM kinetic rate constants. The importance of understanding these processes is highlighted to avoid misinterpretation of passive behavior and advances toward a more quantitative use of SECM for corrosion studies.

Quantitative Measurements of Electrocatalytic Reaction Rates with NanoSECM

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) has been extensively used for mapping electrocatalytic surface reactivity; however, most of the studies were carried out using micrometer-sized tips, and no quantitative kinetic experiments on the nanoscale have yet been reported to date. As the diffusion-limited current density at a nanometer-sized electrode is very high, an inner-sphere electron-transfer process occurring at a nanotip typically produces a kinetic current at any attainable overpotential. Here, we develop a theory for substrate generation/tip collection (SG/TC) and feedback modes of SECM with a kinetic tip current and use it to evaluate the rates of hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions in a neutral aqueous solution from the current-distance curves. The possibility of using chemically modified nanotips for kinetic measurements is also demonstrated. The effect of the substrate size on the shape of the current-distance curves in SG/TC mode SECM experiments is discussed.

Transparent Ultramicroelectrodes for Studying Interfacial Charge-Transfer Kinetics of Photoelectrochemical Water Oxidation at TiO2 Nanorods with Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) has been extensively applied to the electrochemical analysis of the surfaces and interfaces of a photoelectrochemical (PEC) system. A semiconductor photoelectrode with a well-defined geometry and active surface area comparable to SECM's tip is highly desired for accurately quantifying interfacial charge-transfer activities and photoelectrochemically generated redox species, where the broadening effects due to the mass transfer gradient and nonlocal electron transfer at a planar semiconductor surface can be minimized. Here, we present a newly developed platform as a SECM substrate for investigating semiconductor PEC activities, which is based on a transparent ultramicroelectrode (UME) fabricated by using two-step photolithographic patterning and ion milling methods. This transparent UME with a 25 μm recessed disk shape is fully characterized with SECM for quantifying the interfacial charge-transfer rates of IrCl₆^2-/IrCl₆^3- by comparing with theoretical results from finite element simulations in COMSOL Multiphysics. When coated with TiO₂ nanorods as a model semiconductor material, the transparent UME can be used to quantify the catalytic PEC water oxidation in a feedback mode of SECM by sampling tip and substrate current signals simultaneously. This transparent UME-SECM study provides insights into the potential-dependent PEC water oxidation reaction mechanism and the quantitative analysis of photocurrent contributions from water oxidation and the SECM tip-generated redox mediator. The transparent UME-SECM method can be potentially expanded to other SECM operation modes such as surface interrogation for understanding the dynamics of the electrode surfaces and interfaces of a PEC system.

Unravelling the last milliseconds of an individual graphene nanoplatelet before impact with a Pt surface by bipolar electrochemistry

Contactless interactions of micro/nano-particles near electrochemically or chemically active interfaces are ubiquitous in chemistry and biochemistry. Forces arising from a convective field, an electric field or chemical gradients act on different scales ranging from few microns down to few nanometers making their study difficult. Here, we correlated optical microscopy and electrochemical measurements to track at the millisecond timescale the dynamics of individual two-dimensional particles, graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), when approaching an electrified Pt micro-interface. Our original approach takes advantage of the bipolar feedback current recorded when a conducting particle approaches an electrified surface without electrical contact and numerical simulations to access the velocity of individual GNPs. We evidenced a strong deceleration of GNPs from few tens of μm s-1 down to few μm s-1 within the last μm above the surface. This observation reveals the existence of strongly non-uniform forces between tens of and a thousand nanometers from the surface.

Nanoscale redox mapping at the MoS2-liquid interface

Layered MoS₂ is considered as one of the most promising two-dimensional photocatalytic materials for hydrogen evolution and water splitting; however, the electronic structure at the MoS₂-liquid interface is so far insufficiently resolved. Measuring and understanding the band offset at the surfaces of MoS₂ are crucial for understanding catalytic reactions and to achieve further improvements in performance. Herein, the heterogeneous charge transfer behavior of MoS₂ flakes of various layer numbers and sizes is addressed with high spatial resolution in organic solutions using the ferrocene/ferrocenium (Fc/Fc⁺) redox pair as a probe in near-field scanning electrochemical microscopy, i.e. in close nm probe-sample proximity. Redox mapping reveals an area and layer dependent reactivity for MoS₂ with a detailed insight into the local processes as band offset and confinement of the faradaic current obtained. In combination with additional characterization methods, we deduce a band alignment occurring at the liquid-solid interface.

Here, high-resolution atomic force microscopy and scanning electrochemical microscopy are used to investigate the electron transfer behaviour of layered MoS₂ flakes in organic solutions, offering insights on the electronic band alignment at the solid-liquid interface.

Unraveling Mass and Electron Transfer Kinetics at Silica Nanochannel Membrane Modified Electrodes by Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy

An in-depth understanding of kinetic processes convoluting mass and charge transfer at nanoporous membrane modified electrodes is crucial for developing high-performance electrochemical sensors. In this work, we propose a theoretical model to unravel mass (k_m) and electron transfer rate (k_f) from the apparent electrochemical rate constant (k_app) at silica nanoporous membrane (SNM) modified indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes (designated as SNM/ITO for simplicity). Using scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), the k_app of charged redox species was first determined at the SNM/ITO in the absence and presence of surfactant micelles inside SNM. On the basis of the theory, in the presence of micelles inside SNM, k_m equals zero for all charged probes (Ru(NH₃)₆²⁺, Ru(CN)₆^3-, and FcMeOH⁺), thus the SNM behaves as an insulating barrier and the overall electrode reactivity is dominated by the permeability of SNM. After excluding micelles from SNM, the k_m of Ru(CN)₆^3-/4- is strongly dependent on the KCl concentration in the solution, decreasing from 0.23/0.15 mm s^-1 to almost zero upon decreasing the KCl concentration from 1.0 to 0.01 M. In contrast, k_m increases from 1.33 to 2.4 mm s^-1 for Ru(NH₃)₆²⁺ and from 0.18 to 0.33 mm s^-1 for FcMeOH⁺, which are comparable to the electron transfer rate at the underlying ITO electrode surface (0.8 and 0.35 mm s^-1). In these cases, both mass and electron transfer processes are important in determining the overall redox activity of SNM/ITO electrodes. The methodology reported in this work can provide a quantitative way of unraveling these processes and their respective contributions.

3D electrochemical and ion current imaging using scanning electrochemical-scanning ion conductance microscopy

Local cell-membrane permeability and ionic strength are important factors for maintaining the functions of cells. Here, we measured the spatial electrochemical and ion concentration profile near the sample surface with nanoscale resolution using scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) combined with scanning ion-conductance microscopy (SICM). The ion current feedback system is an effective way to control probe-sample distance without contact and monitor the kinetic effect of mediator regeneration and the chemical concentration profile. For demonstrating 3D electrochemical and ion concentration mapping, we evaluated the reaction rate of electrochemical mediator regeneration on an unbiased conductor and visualized inhomogeneous permeability and the ion concentration 3D profile on a single fixed adipocyte cell surface.

Determining Li+-Coupled Redox Targeting Reaction Kinetics of Battery Materials with Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy

The redox targeting reaction of Li⁺-storage materials with redox mediators is the key process in redox flow lithium batteries, a promising technology for next-generation large-scale energy storage. The kinetics of the Li⁺-coupled heterogeneous charge transfer between the energy storage material and redox mediator dictates the performance of the device, while as a new type of charge transfer process it has been rarely studied. Here, scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) was employed for the first time to determine the interfacial charge transfer kinetics of LiFePO₄/FePO₄ upon delithiation and lithiation by a pair of redox shuttle molecules FcBr₂⁺ and Fc. The effective rate constant k_eff was determined to be around 3.70-6.57 × 10^-3 cm/s for the two-way pseudo-first-order reactions, which feature a linear dependence on the composition of LiFePO₄, validating the kinetic process of interfacial charge transfer rather than bulk solid diffusion. In addition, in conjunction with chronoamperometry measurement, the SECM study disproves the conventional "shrinking-core" model for the delithiation of LiFePO₄ and presents an intriguing way of probing the phase boundary propagations induced by interfacial redox reactions. This study demonstrates a reliable method for the kinetics of redox targeting reactions, and the results provide useful guidance for the optimization of redox targeting systems for large-scale energy storage.

Electrochemistry at a single nanoparticle: from bipolar regime to tunnelling

This paper is concerned with long-distance interactions between an unbiased metal nanoparticle (NP) and a nanoelectrode employed as a tip in the scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM).

3D Printed and Microcontrolled: The One Hundred Dollars Scanning Electrochemical Microscope

The design and fabrication of a versatile and low-cost electrochemical-scanning probe microscope (EC-SPM) is presented. The proposed equipment relies on the use of modern prototyping tools such as 3D printers and microcontroller boards and only a few "off-the-shelf" parts to deliver a simple yet powerful EC-SPM equipment capable of performing simple space-resolved electrochemical measurements. The equipment was able to perform space-resolved electrochemical measurements using a platinum ultramicroelectrode (UME) as the working electrode on a scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) configuration and was used to record approach curves, line scans, and array scans over an insulating substrate. The performance of the proposed equipment was found to be adequate for simple SECM measurements under hindered diffusion conditions. Because of its flexible design (software and hardware), more complex array scan patterns, only found on high-end EC-SPM setups such as hopping mode scan, were easily implemented on the built equipment. Despite its simplicity, the versatility and low cost of the proposed design make it an attractive alternative as a teaching platform as well as a platform for developing more elaborate EC-SPM setups.

Focused-Ion-Beam-Milled Carbon Nanoelectrodes for Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy

Nanoscale scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) has emerged as a powerful electrochemical method that enables the study of interfacial reactions with unprecedentedly high spatial and kinetic resolution. In this work, we develop carbon nanoprobes with high electrochemical reactivity and well-controlled size and geometry based on chemical vapor deposition of carbon in quartz nanopipets. Carbon-filled nanopipets are milled by focused ion beam (FIB) technology to yield a flat disk tip with a thin quartz sheath as confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. The extremely high electroactivity of FIB-milled carbon nanotips is quantified by enormously high standard electron-transfer rate constants of ≥10 cm/s for Ru(NH3)63+. The tip size and geometry are characterized in electrolyte solutions by SECM approach curve measurements not only to determine inner and outer tip radii of down to ~27 and ~38 nm, respectively, but also to ensure the absence of a conductive carbon layer on the outer wall. In addition, FIB-milled carbon nanotips reveal the limited conductivity of ~100 nm-thick gold films under nanoscale mass-transport conditions. Importantly, carbon nanotips must be protected from electrostatic damage to enable reliable and quantitative nanoelectrochemical measurements.

Redox cycling without reference electrodes

The reference electrode is a key component in electrochemical measurements, yet it remains a challenge to implement a reliable reference electrode in miniaturized electrochemical sensors. Here we explore experimentally and theoretically an alternative approach based on redox cycling which eliminates the reference electrode altogether. We show that shifts in the solution potential caused by the lack of reference can be understood quantitatively, and determine the requirements for accurate measurements in miniaturized systems in the absence of a reference electrode.

Origins of nanoscale damage to glass-sealed platinum electrodes with submicrometer and nanometer size

Glass-sealed Pt electrodes with submicrometer and nanometer size have been successfully developed and applied for nanoscale electrochemical measurements such as scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). These small electrodes, however, are difficult to work with because they often lose a current response or give a low SECM feedback in current-distance curves. Here we report that these problems can be due to the nanometer-scale damage that is readily and unknowingly made to the small tips in air by electrostatic discharge or in electrolyte solution by electrochemical etching. The damaged Pt electrodes are recessed and contaminated with removed electrode materials to lower their current responses. The recession and contamination of damaged Pt electrodes are demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy. The recessed geometry is noticeable also by SECM but is not obvious from a cyclic voltammogram. Characterization of a damaged Pt electrode with recessed geometry only by cyclic voltammetry may underestimate electrode size from a lower limiting current owing to an invalid assumption of inlaid disk geometry. Significantly, electrostatic damage can be avoided by grounding a Pt electrode and nearby objects, most importantly, an operator as a source of electrostatic charge. Electrochemical damage can be avoided by maintaining potentiostatic control of a Pt electrode without internally disconnecting the electrode from a potentiostat between voltammetric measurements. Damage-free Pt electrodes with submicrometer and nanometer sizes are pivotal for reliable and quantitative nanoelectrochemical measurements.

Kinetics of interfacial electron transfer at single-layer graphene electrodes in aqueous and nonaqueous solutions

We present a catalog of electron transfer mediators for investigating the heterogeneous electron transfer kinetics of large-area, single-layer graphene electrodes. Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) was used to probe the apparent standard electron transfer rate constant of mediators in aqueous solutions and in acetonitrile and dimethylformamide, allowing for studies of graphene electroactivity at different potentials and in both aqueous and nonaqueous media. In aqueous solution, iron(III) ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, hexacyanoruthenate(II), hexacyanoferrate(II), hexacyanoferrate(III), octacyanomalybdate(IV), cobalt(III) sepulchrate, and hydroxymethylferrocene exhibited quasi-reversible electron transfer behavior. The electron transfer kinetics of hexaammineruthenium(III), methyl viologen, and tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) were found to be reversible in these studies. The electron transfer rate constant of hydroxymethylferrocene and ferrocene, in organic media, was similar to that for hydroxymethylferrocene in water, which, although fast, shows clear kinetic complications that we believe are inherent to graphene. A series of viologens, known to be reversible at metal electrodes, exhibited quasi-reversible electron transfer. For [Co(dapa)(2)](2+), where dapa is 2,6-bis[1-(phenylimino)ethyl]pyridine, in dimethylformamide, the oxidation state of the redox pair investigated affected the observed kinetics. Under similar experimental conditions, the Co(I/II) couple exhibited nearly reversible behavior whereas Co(II/III) had finite kinetics. This behavior was ascribed to the large difference in self-exchange rates for these two processes. To demonstrate the utility of using these mediators for examining graphene electrodes, the kinetics of two mediators with quasi-reversible electron transfer behavior, iron ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and hexacyanoruthenate, were measured in the presence of a redox-active species [Os(bpy)(2)(dipy)Cl]PF(6), where bpy is 2,2'-bipyridine and dipy is 4,4'-trimethylenedipyridine, adsorbed onto the graphene surface. The kinetics of both mediators were enhanced in the presence of one-hundredth of a monolayer of the osmium complex, showing that even small amounts of impurities on the graphene surface are capable of enhancing the observed kinetics.

An exchangeable-tip scanning probe instrument for the analysis of combinatorial libraries of electrocatalysts

A combined scanning differential electrochemical mass spectrometer (SDEMS)-scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM) apparatus is described. The SDEMS is used to detect and spatially resolve volatile electrochemically generated species at the surface of a substrate electrode. The SECM can electrochemically probe the reactivity of the surface and also offers a convenient means of leveling the sample. It is possible to switch between these two different scanning tips and techniques without moving the sample and while maintaining potential control of the substrate electrode. A procedure for calibration of the SDEMS tip-substrate separation, based upon the transit time of electrogenerated species from the substrate to the tip is also described. This instrument can be used in the characterization of combinatorial libraries of direct alcohol fuel cell anode catalysts. The apparatus was used to analyze the products of methanol oxidation at a Pt substrate, with the SDEMS detecting carbon dioxide and methyl formate, and a PtPb-modified Pt SECM tip used for the selective detection of formic acid. As an example system, the electrocatalytic methanol oxidation activity of a sputter-deposited binary PtRu composition spread in acidic media was analyzed using the SDEMS. These results are compared with those obtained from a pH-sensitive fluorescence assay.

Electrochemical identification of artificial oligonucleotides related to bovine species. Potential for identification of species based on mismatches in the mitochondrial cytochrome C1 oxidase gene

Our studies show that electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) of films of ds-DNA on gold allow us to distinguish between mitochondrial DNA fragments of the cytochrome c(1) oxidase (mt-Cox1) of three related species of the subfamily 'Bovinae' (Bos taurus, Bison bison, and Bison bonasus). In EIS, a perfectly matched DNA gives rise to a considerably larger charge transfer resistance R(ct) compared to mismatched pairings. Differences in charge transfer resistance, ΔR(ct), before and after the addition of Zn(2+) ions provide an additional tool for identification. In addition, all ds-DNA films were studied by SECM and their kinetic parameters were determined. Perfectly matched ds-DNAs are readily distinguished from mismatched duplexes by their lower rate constants. Our system can be used multiple times by dehybridization and rehybridization of capture strands up to the 250 pmole level.

Quasi-steady-state voltammetry of rapid electron transfer reactions at the macroscopic substrate of the scanning electrochemical microscope

We report on a novel theory and experiment for scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) to enable quasi-steady-state voltammetry of rapid electron transfer (ET) reactions at macroscopic substrates. With this powerful approach, the substrate potential is cycled widely across the formal potential of a redox couple while the reactant or product of a substrate reaction is amperometrically detected at the tip in the feedback or substrate generation/tip collection mode, respectively. The plot of tip current versus substrate potential features the retraceable sigmoidal shape of a quasi-steady-state voltammogram although a transient voltammogram is obtained at the macroscopic substrate. Finite element simulations reveal that a short tip-substrate distance and a reversible substrate reaction (except under the tip) are required for quasi-steady-state voltammetry. Advantageously, a pair of quasi-steady-state voltammograms is obtained by employing both operation modes to reliably determine all transport, thermodynamic, and kinetic parameters as confirmed experimentally for rapid ET reactions of ferrocenemethanol and 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane at a Pt substrate with ∼0.5 μm-radius Pt tips positioned at 90 nm-1 μm distances. Standard ET rate constants of ∼7 cm/s were obtained for the latter mediator as the largest determined for a substrate reaction by SECM. Various potential applications of quasi-steady-state voltammetry are also proposed.

Touching surface-attached molecules with a microelectrode: mapping the distribution of redox-labeled macromolecules by electrochemical-atomic force microscopy

We report on the development of a mediator-free electrochemical-atomic force microscopy (AFM-SECM) technique designed for high-resolution imaging of molecular layers of nanometer-sized redox-labeled (macro)molecules immobilized onto electrode surfaces. This new AFM-SECM imaging technique, we call molecule touching atomic force electrochemical microscopy (Mt/AFM-SECM), is based on the direct contact between surface-anchored molecules and an incoming microelectrode (tip). To validate the working-principle of this microscopy, we consider a model system consisting of a monolayer of nanometer long, flexible, polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains covalently attached by one extremity to a gold surface and bearing at their free end a ferrocene (Fc) redox tag. Using Mt/AFM-SECM in tapping mode, i.e., by oscillating the tip so that it comes in intermittent contact with the grafted chains, we show that the substrate topography and the distribution of the redox-tagged PEG chains immobilized on the gold surface can be simultaneously and independently imaged at the sub-100 nm scale. This novel type of SECM imaging may be found useful for characterizing the surface of advanced biosensors which use electrode-grafted, redox-tagged, linear biochains, such as peptides or DNA chains, as sensing elements. In principle, Mt/AFM-SECM should also permit in situ imaging of the distribution of any kind of macromolecules immobilized on electrode surfaces or simply conducting surfaces, provided they are labeled by a suitable redox tag.

Detection of hydrogen peroxide produced during the oxygen reduction reaction at self-assembled thiol-porphyrin monolayers on gold using SECM and nanoelectrodes

Porphyrin molecules were immobilized on polycrystalline gold and glassy carbon by coordinating cobalt(II) 5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl-21H,23H-porphine to a 4-aminothiophenol self-assembled monolayer. The resulting electrocatalytic activity of the metalloporphyrin-modified substrates with regard to the oxygen reduction reaction was characterized by means of cyclic voltammetry and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) using nanoelectrodes of well-defined geometry. From substrate generation tip collection (SG-TC) mode SECM measurements performed under steady-state conditions and at different applied substrate potentials, it is possible to extract kinetic information relevant to electrocatalyst substrates such as metalloporphyrin-modified gold and glassy-carbon electrodes. Such an approach allows for the isolation of the unique contribution of the electrocatalyst to the oxygen reduction reaction and peroxide formation.

Scanning electrochemical microscopy of individual single-walled carbon nanotubes

Here we report on the novel application of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) to enable spatially resolved electrochemical characterization of individual single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs). The feedback imaging mode of SECM was employed to detect a pristine SWNT (approximately 1.6 nm in diameter and approximately 2 mm in length) grown horizontally on a SiO(2) surface by chemical vapor deposition. The resulting image demonstrates that the individual nanotube under an unbiased condition is highly active for the redox reaction of ferrocenylmethyltrimethylammonium used as a mediator. Micrometer-scale resolution of the image is determined by the diameter of a disk-shaped SECM probe rather than by the nanotube diameter as assessed using 1.5 and 10 microm diameter probes. Interestingly, the long SWNT is readily detectable using the larger probe although the active SWNT covers only approximately 0.05% of the insulating surface just under the tip. This high sensitivity of the SECM feedback method is ascribed to efficient mass transport and facile electron transfer at the individual SWNT.

Spatially resolved detection of a nanometer-scale gap by scanning electrochemical microscopy

Nanowires with nanometer-scale gaps are an emerging class of nanomaterials with potential applications in electronics and optics. Here, we demonstrate that the feedback mode of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) allows for spatially resolved detection of a nanogap on the basis of its electrical conductivity. A gapped nanoband is used as a model system to describe a mechanism of a unique feedback effect from a nanogap. Interestingly, both experiments and numerical simulations confirm that a peak current response is obtained when an SECM tip is laterally scanned above an insulating nanogap formed in an unbiased nanoband. On the other hand, no peak current response is expected for a highly conductive nanogap, which must be extremely narrow or filled with highly conductive molecules for efficient electron transport.

Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy of One-Dimensional Nanostructure: Effects of Nanostructure Dimensions on the Tip Feedback Current under Unbiased Conditions

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) is developed as a powerful approach to electrochemical characterization of individual one-dimensional (1D) nanostructures under unbiased conditions. 1D nanostructures comprise high-aspect-ratio materials with both nanoscale and macroscale dimensions such as nanowires, nanotubes, nanobelts, and nanobands. Finite element simulations demonstrate that the feedback current at a disk-shaped ultramicroelectrode tip positioned above an unbiased nanoband, as prepared on an insulating substrate, is sensitive to finite dimensions of the band, i.e., micrometer length, nanometer width, and nanometer height from the insulating surface. The electron-transfer rate of a redox mediator at the nanoband surface depends not only on the intrinsic rate but also on the open-circuit potential of the nanoband, which is determined by the dimensions of the nanoband as well as the tip inner and outer radii, and tip-substrate distance. The theoretical predictions are confirmed experimentally by employing Au nanobands as fabricated on a SiO(2) surface by electron-beam lithography, thereby yielding well defined dimensions of 100 or 500 nm in width, 47 nm in height, and 50 μm in length. A 100 nm-wide nanoband can be detected by SECM imaging with ∼2 μm-diameter tips although the tip feedback current is compromised by finite electron-transfer kinetics for Ru(NH(3))(6) (3+) at the nanoband surface.

Interrogation of surfaces for the quantification of adsorbed species on electrodes: oxygen on gold and platinum in neutral media

We introduce a new in situ electrochemical technique based on the scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM) operating in a transient feedback mode for the detection and direct quantification of adsorbed species on the surface of electrodes. A SECM tip generates a titrant from a reversible redox mediator that reacts chemically with an electrogenerated or chemically adsorbed species at a substrate of about the same size as the tip, which is positioned at a short distance from it (ca.1 microm). The reaction between the titrant and the adsorbate provides a transient positive feedback loop until the adsorbate is consumed completely. The sensing mechanism is provided by the contrast between positive and negative feedback, which allows a direct quantification of the charge neutralized at the substrate. The proposed technique allows quantification of the adsorbed species generated at the substrate at a given potential under open circuit conditions, a feature not attainable with conventional electrochemical methods. Moreover, the feedback mode allows the tip to be both the titrant generator and detector, simplifying notably the experimental setup. The surface interrogation technique we introduce was tested for the quantification of electrogenerated oxides (adsorbed oxygen species) on gold and platinum electrodes at neutral pH in phosphate and TRIS buffers and with two different mediator systems. Good agreement is found with cyclic voltammetry at the substrate and with previous results in the literature, but we also find evidence for the formation of "incipient oxides" which are not revealed by conventional voltammetry. The mode of operation of the technique is supported by digital simulations, which show good agreement with the experimental results.

Detection of single-nucleotide mismatches using scanning electrochemical microscopy

Probing ds-DNA films in the presence of Zn(2+) ions by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) allows the unequivocal detection of a single-nucleotide mismatch and provides information about its position within the duplex.

Effects of cadmium on photosynthetic oxygen evolution from single stomata in Brassica juncea (L.) Czern

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) was utilized to investigate photosynthetic oxygen evolution from single stomata in leaves of live Brassica juncea (L.) Czern cultured in nutrient solution to which 0.2 or 0.01 mM CdC12 had been added. The bulk leaf surface serves as an insulator normally; therefore, a typical negative feedback was observed on the probe approach curves (PACs) when the probe approached epidermal cells. When the probe tip approached an open stoma, a higher tip current was detected due to the O2 release from this stoma. Thus, SECM can be used to map the O2 concentration profile near the leaf surface and study stomatal complex structure size and density. The oxygen release from single stomata was also analyzed by comparison of experimental PACs with those simulated by COMSOL multiphysics software (version 3.4). In addition to an increase in the stomatal complex size and a decrease in the complex density, the Cd accumulation caused up to a 26% decrease in photosynthetic rate determined at the level of a single stoma. The O2 evolution was also monitored by recording the tip current vs time when a tip sat above the center of a stoma. Periodic peaks in O2 release-time curves were observed, varying from 400 to 1600 s. The opening and closing activities of single stomata were also imaged by SECM.

Review: Recent applications of scanning electrochemical microscopy to the study of charge transfer kinetics

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) has been proven to be a valuable technique for the quantitative investigation and surface analysis of a wide range of processes that occur at interfaces. In particular, there is a great deal of interest in studying the kinetics of charge transfer characteristics at the solid/liquid and liquid/liquid interface. This overview outlines recent advances and applications of SECM to the investigation of charge transfer reactions at the solid/liquid interface and liquid/liquid interface.