Fluorescence spectroscopy of the retina for diagnosis of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies

Protonation induced redshift in the fluorescence of a pyridine derivative as a potential anti-counterfeiting agent

A simple pyridine-based compound, i.e. (2,4,6-tris(4-(hexyloxy)phenyl)pyridine), was synthesized and exhibited excellent solubility in various organic solvents owing to the presence of three 4-n-hexyloxy chains in its molecular structure. Further, we studied the effect of various solvents on its absorption and emission properties. We observed a greater extent of redshift in the chloroform solvent compared to the rest of the solvents. In fact, the observed redshift was attributed to protonation of the pyridine moiety by HCl (present due to the oxidative photo-decomposition of chloroform) in the solvent. Therefore, we also studied the acidochromic properties of the compound using acetic acid (AA), trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), and hydrochloric acid (HCl). We found that the compound sensed the HCl vapor much more efficiently than the TFA and AA vapours. Additionally, DFT analysis suggested a narrow theoretical bandgap for the protonated molecule when compared to the neutral molecule, explaining the redshift in the absorption and emission spectra of the protonated molecule. Furthermore, the compound exhibited a good level of aggregation induced enhanced emission (AIEE) in the THF-water system. In fact, compounds showing both AIEE and acidochromism are rarely reported in the literature. Finally, we employed it as an anti-counterfeiting agent based on its acid-base vapour sensing capability.

Prions and prion diseases: Insights from the eye

Prion diseases are invariably fatal neurodegenerative disorders that have gained much publicity due to their transmissible nature. Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) is the most common human prion disorder, with an incidence of 1 in a million. Inherited prion disorders are relatively rare, and associated with mutations in the prion protein gene. More than 50 different point mutations, deletions, and insertions have been identified so far. Most are autosomal dominant and fully penetrant. Prion disorders also occur in animals, and are of major concern because of the potential for spreading to humans. The principal pathogenic event underlying all prion disorders is a change in the conformation of prion protein (PrP^C) from a mainly α-helical to a β-sheet rich isoform, PrP-scrapie (PrP^Sc). Accumulation of PrP^Sc in the brain parenchyma is the major cause of neuronal degeneration. The mechanism by which PrP^Sc is transmitted, propagates, and causes neurodegenerative changes has been investigated over the years, and several clues have emerged. Efforts are also ongoing for identifying specific and sensitive diagnostic tests for sCJD and animal prion disorders, but success has been limited. The eye is suitable for these evaluations because it shares several anatomical and physiological features with the brain, and can be observed in vivo during disease progression. The retina, considered an extension of the central nervous system, is involved extensively in prion disorders. Accordingly, Optical Coherence Tomography and electroretinogram have shown some promise as pre-mortem diagnostic tests for human and animal prion disorders. However, a complete understanding of the physiology of PrP^C and pathobiology of PrP^Sc in the eye is essential for developing specific and sensitive tests. Below, we summarize recent progress in ocular physiology and pathology in prion disorders, and the eye as an anatomically accessible site to diagnose, monitor disease progression, and test therapeutic options.

Equipment-free and visual detection of multiple biomarkers via an aggregation induced emission luminogen-based paper biosensor

Early and accurate disease diagnosis is of great appeal for saving patients' life, but requires biomarkers to be sensitively detected with simplicity, convenience, and low cost. Exploring the development of a high-performance fluorescence biosensor for biomarkers solid, equipment-free and visual biosensing is highly urgent but faces enormous challenges. Herein, we proposed a brand-new fluorescence system by integrating a typical aggregation induced emission dye (TPE-BTD) with dopamine for multiple biomarkers sensitive detection based on target-induced catalyzing oxidation. The system comprising TPE-BTD and dopamine emits strong fluorescence; with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or HRP-mimicking DNAzyme and H₂O₂ being added, significant oxidation on dopamine occurs to generate dopachrome, which actuated the inner filter effect (IFE) due to the overlap of its absorbtion curve and emission spectrum of TPE-BTD, subsequently decreasing fluorescence emission and displaying a rapid and sensitive response to H₂O₂ and G-quadruplex DNA. We further apply TPE-BTD/dopamine system in analysis of glucose and DNA adenine methylation methyltransferase (Dam MTase) based on target-initiated signal transduction. Finally, TPE-BTD was employed as emitters in fabrication of paper biosensors, which can achieve solid, equipment-free and visual detection of multiple biomarkers based on the high emission performance of TPE-BTD, opening up a new pathway to development of biosensors for practical application. We expect this sensing conception will be helpful in development of practical biosensors, and this sensor will find more applications in disease diagnosis.

Using Fluorescence Spectroscopy To Identify Milk from Grass-Fed Dairy Cows and To Monitor Its Photodegradation

Owing to its high ω-3 fatty acid content, milk from grass-fed dairy cows is becoming increasingly more attractive to consumers. Consequently, it is important to identify the origins of such products and to measure their content, at least relative to some standard. To date, chromatography has been the most extensively used technique. Sample preparation and cost, however, often reduce its widespread applicability. Here, we report the effectiveness of fluorescence spectroscopy for such quantification by measuring the amount of chlorophyll metabolites in the sample. Their content is significantly higher for milk from grass-fed cows compared to milk from grain/silage-fed cows. It is 0.11-0.13 μM in milk samples from grass-fed cows, whereas in milk from cows fed grain/silage rations, the concentration was 0.01-0.04 μM. In various organic milk samples, the chlorophyll metabolite concentration was in the range of 0.07-0.09 μM. In addition, we explored the mechanisms of photodegradation of milk. Riboflavin and chlorophyll metabolites act as photosensitizers in milk for type-I and type-II reactions, respectively. It was also observed that the presence of high levels of chlorophyll metabolites can synergistically degrade riboflavin, contributing to the degradation of milk quality.

Fluorescence Spectroscopy of the Retina for the Screening of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) are progressive, neurodegenerative disorders, of which bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is of special concern because it is infectious and debilitating to humans. The possibility of using fluorescence spectroscopy to screen for BSE in cattle was explored. Fluorescence spectra from the retinas of experimentally infected BSE-positive cattle with clinical disease were compared with those from both sham-inoculated and non-inoculated BSE-negative cattle. The distinct intensity difference of about 4-10-fold between the spectra of the BSE-positive and the BSE-negative (sham-inoculated and non-inoculated) eyes suggests the basis for a means of developing a rapid, noninvasive examination of BSE in particular and TSEs in general.

Fluorescence spectroscopy of the retina from scrapie-infected mice

Recently, we have proposed that the fluorescence spectra of sheep retina can be well correlated with the presence or absence of scrapie. Scrapie is the most widespread TSE (transmissible spongiform encephalopathy) affecting sheep and goats worldwide. Mice eyes have been previously reported as a model system to study age-related accumulation of lipofuscin, which has been investigated by monitoring the increasing fluorescence with age covering its entire life span. The current work aims at developing mice retina as a convenient model system to diagnose scrapie and other fatal TSE diseases in animals such as sheep and cows. The objective of the research reported here was to determine whether the spectral features are conserved between two different species namely mice and sheep, and whether an appropriate small animal model system could be identified for diagnosis of scrapie based on the fluorescence intensity in retina. The results were consistent with the previous reports on fluorescence studies of healthy and scrapie-infected retina of sheep. The fluorescence from the retinas of scrapie-infected sheep was significantly more intense and showed more heterogeneity than that from the retinas of uninfected mice. Although the structural characteristics of fluorescence spectra of scrapie-infected sheep and mice eyes are slightly different, more importantly, murine retinas reflect the enhancement of fluorescence intensity upon infecting the mice with scrapie, which is consistent with the observations in sheep eyes.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma mice lacking mucin 1 have a profound defect in tumor growth and metastasis

MUC1 is overexpressed and aberrantly glycosylated in more than 60% of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas. The functional role of MUC1 in pancreatic cancer has yet to be fully elucidated due to a dearth of appropriate models. In this study, we have generated mouse models that spontaneously develop pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (KC), which are either Muc1-null (KCKO) or express human MUC1 (KCM). We show that KCKO mice have significantly slower tumor progression and rates of secondary metastasis, compared with both KC and KCM. Cell lines derived from KCKO tumors have significantly less tumorigenic capacity compared with cells from KCM tumors. Therefore, mice with KCKO tumors had a significant survival benefit compared with mice with KCM tumors. In vitro, KCKO cells have reduced proliferation and invasion and failed to respond to epidermal growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, or matrix metalloproteinase 9. Further, significantly less KCKO cells entered the G(2)-M phase of the cell cycle compared with the KCM cells. Proteomics and Western blotting analysis revealed a complete loss of cdc-25c expression, phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), as well as a significant decrease in nestin and tubulin-α2 chain expression in KCKO cells. Treatment with a MEK1/2 inhibitor, U0126, abrogated the enhanced proliferation of the KCM cells but had minimal effect on KCKO cells, suggesting that MUC1 is necessary for MAPK activity and oncogenic signaling. This is the first study to utilize a Muc1-null PDA mouse to fully elucidate the oncogenic role of MUC1, both in vivo and in vitro.