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Chauke SH, Nzuza S, Ombinda-Lemboumba S, Abrahamse H, Dube FS, Mthunzi-Kufa P. Advances in the detection and diagnosis of tuberculosis using optical-based devices. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2024; 45:103906. [PMID: 38042235 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2023.103906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is highly contagious and can lead to severe health complications if left untreated. This review article discusses the importance of early detection and treatment and its global incidence and epidemiology, emphasizing its impact on vulnerable populations and its role as a major cause of death worldwide. Furthermore, it highlights the challenges faced with diagnosing TB. To overcome these challenges, point-of-care devices have emerged as promising tools for rapid and accurate TB detection. These include devices such as nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), lateral flow assays (LFAs), and microfluidic-based assays, which offer advantages such as rapid results, portability, and the ability to detect drug-resistant strains. Optical-based devices, such as photonic micro-ring sensors, silicon platform-based sensors, plasmonic-based platforms, microfluidics, and smartphone imaging, are some of the highlighted optical-based devices with the potential to detect TB. These devices can detect TB in sputum samples with high sensitivity and specificity. Optical-based diagnostic devices have the potential to offer the advantages of detecting low concentrations of target molecules and being adaptable to detect multiple targets simultaneously. Using these devices in a clinical setting makes them suitable for their application in improving access to diagnostic testing that enables earlier detection and treatment of TB. Furthermore, these devices would improve TB's global health issue, which requires comprehensive research, prevention, and treatment efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sipho H Chauke
- Biophotonics, Photonic Centre, Manufacturing Cluster, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria 0001, South Africa; Molecular and Cell Biology Department, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7701, South Africa.
| | - Sinegugu Nzuza
- Biophotonics, Photonic Centre, Manufacturing Cluster, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria 0001, South Africa; Laser Research Centre Department, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa
| | - Saturnin Ombinda-Lemboumba
- Biophotonics, Photonic Centre, Manufacturing Cluster, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria 0001, South Africa
| | - Heidi Abrahamse
- Laser Research Centre Department, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa
| | - Felix S Dube
- Molecular and Cell Biology Department, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Patience Mthunzi-Kufa
- Biophotonics, Photonic Centre, Manufacturing Cluster, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria 0001, South Africa; Molecular and Cell Biology Department, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7701, South Africa; School of Interdisciplinary Research and Graduate Studies (UNESCO), University of South Africa, GroenKloof Campus, Pretoria, South Africa
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2
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Puumala LS, Grist SM, Morales JM, Bickford JR, Chrostowski L, Shekhar S, Cheung KC. Biofunctionalization of Multiplexed Silicon Photonic Biosensors. BIOSENSORS 2022; 13:53. [PMID: 36671887 PMCID: PMC9855810 DOI: 10.3390/bios13010053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Silicon photonic (SiP) sensors offer a promising platform for robust and low-cost decentralized diagnostics due to their high scalability, low limit of detection, and ability to integrate multiple sensors for multiplexed analyte detection. Their CMOS-compatible fabrication enables chip-scale miniaturization, high scalability, and low-cost mass production. Sensitive, specific detection with silicon photonic sensors is afforded through biofunctionalization of the sensor surface; consequently, this functionalization chemistry is inextricably linked to sensor performance. In this review, we first highlight the biofunctionalization needs for SiP biosensors, including sensitivity, specificity, cost, shelf-stability, and replicability and establish a set of performance criteria. We then benchmark biofunctionalization strategies for SiP biosensors against these criteria, organizing the review around three key aspects: bioreceptor selection, immobilization strategies, and patterning techniques. First, we evaluate bioreceptors, including antibodies, aptamers, nucleic acid probes, molecularly imprinted polymers, peptides, glycans, and lectins. We then compare adsorption, bioaffinity, and covalent chemistries for immobilizing bioreceptors on SiP surfaces. Finally, we compare biopatterning techniques for spatially controlling and multiplexing the biofunctionalization of SiP sensors, including microcontact printing, pin- and pipette-based spotting, microfluidic patterning in channels, inkjet printing, and microfluidic probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren S. Puumala
- School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2222 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Samantha M. Grist
- School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2222 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Dream Photonics Inc., Vancouver, BC V6T 0A7, Canada
| | - Jennifer M. Morales
- Army Research Laboratory, US Army Combat Capabilities Development Command, 2800 Powder Mill Rd., Adelphi, MD 20783, USA
| | - Justin R. Bickford
- Army Research Laboratory, US Army Combat Capabilities Development Command, 2800 Powder Mill Rd., Adelphi, MD 20783, USA
| | - Lukas Chrostowski
- Dream Photonics Inc., Vancouver, BC V6T 0A7, Canada
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2332 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Stewart Blusson Quantum Matter Institute, University of British Columbia, 2355 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sudip Shekhar
- Dream Photonics Inc., Vancouver, BC V6T 0A7, Canada
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2332 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Karen C. Cheung
- School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2222 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2332 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
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3
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Steglich P, Lecci G, Mai A. Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Spectroscopy and Photonic Integrated Circuit (PIC) Biosensors: A Comparative Review. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:2901. [PMID: 35458884 PMCID: PMC9028357 DOI: 10.3390/s22082901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Label-free direct-optical biosensors such as surface-plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy has become a gold standard in biochemical analytics in centralized laboratories. Biosensors based on photonic integrated circuits (PIC) are based on the same physical sensing mechanism: evanescent field sensing. PIC-based biosensors can play an important role in healthcare, especially for point-of-care diagnostics, if challenges for a transfer from research laboratory to industrial applications can be overcome. Research is at this threshold, which presents a great opportunity for innovative on-site analyses in the health and environmental sectors. A deeper understanding of the innovative PIC technology is possible by comparing it with the well-established SPR spectroscopy. In this work, we shortly introduce both technologies and reveal similarities and differences. Further, we review some latest advances and compare both technologies in terms of surface functionalization and sensor performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Steglich
- IHP—Leibniz-Institut für Innovative Mikroelektronik, 15236 Frankfurt (Oder), Germany; (G.L.); (A.M.)
- Department of Photonics, Technische Hochschule Wildau, 15745 Wildau, Germany
| | - Giulia Lecci
- IHP—Leibniz-Institut für Innovative Mikroelektronik, 15236 Frankfurt (Oder), Germany; (G.L.); (A.M.)
| | - Andreas Mai
- IHP—Leibniz-Institut für Innovative Mikroelektronik, 15236 Frankfurt (Oder), Germany; (G.L.); (A.M.)
- Department of Photonics, Technische Hochschule Wildau, 15745 Wildau, Germany
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4
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Myres GJ, Peterson EM, Harris JM. Confocal Raman Microscopy Enables Label-Free, Quantitative, and Structurally Informative Detection of DNA Hybridization at Porous Silica Surfaces. Anal Chem 2021; 93:7978-7986. [PMID: 34037395 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Characterization of DNA at solid/liquid interfaces remains a challenge because most surface-sensitive techniques are unable to provide quantitative insight into the base content, length, or structure. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering measurements of DNA hybridization on plasmonic-metal substrates have been used to overcome small Raman-scattering cross-sections; however, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy measurements are not generally quantitative due to the fall-off in the scattering signal with the decay of the electric field enhancement from the surface, which also limits the length of oligonucleotides that can be investigated. In this work, we introduce an experimental methodology in which confocal Raman microscopy is used to characterize hybridization reactions of ssDNA immobilized at the solid/liquid interface of porous silica particles. By focusing the femtoliter confocal probe volume within a single porous particle, signal enhancement arises from the ∼1500-times greater surface area detected compared to a planar substrate. Because the porous support is a purely dielectric material, the scattering signal is independent of the proximity of the oligonucleotide to the silica surface. With this technique, we characterize a 19-mer capture strand and determine its hybridization efficiency with 9-mer and 16-mer target sequences from the scattering of a structurally insensitive phosphate-stretching mode. Changes in polarizability and frequency of scattering from DNA bases were observed, which are consistent with Watson-Crick base pairing. Quantification of base content from their duplex scattering intensities allows us to discriminate between hybridization of two target strands of equivalent length but with different recognition sequences. A duplex having a single-nucleotide polymorphism could be distinguished from hybridization of a fully complementary strand based on differences in base content and duplex conformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant J Myres
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Eric M Peterson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Joel M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
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5
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Abstract
Optical whispering-gallery mode (WGM) microresonators, confining resonant photons in a microscale volume for long periods of time, strongly enhance light-matter interactions, making them an ideal platform for photonic sensors. One of the features of WGM sensors is their capability to respond to environmental perturbations that influence the optical mode distribution. The exceptional sensitivity of WGM devices, coupled with the diversity in their structures and the ease of integration with existing infrastructures, such as conventional chip-based technologies, has catalyzed the development of WGM sensors for a broad range of analytes. WGM sensors have been developed for multiplexed detection of clinically relevant biomolecules while also being adapted for the analysis of single-protein interactions. They have been used for the detection of materials in different phases and forms, including gases, liquids, and chemicals. Furthermore, WGM sensors have been used for a wide variety of field-based sensing applications, including electric field, magnetic field, force, pressure, and temperature. WGM sensors hold great potential for applications in life and environmental sciences. They are expected to meet the ever-increasing demand in sensor networks, the Internet of Things, and real-time health monitoring. Here we review the mechanisms, structures, parameters, and recent advances of WGM microsensors and discuss the future of this exciting research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefeng Jiang
- Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Abraham J. Qavi
- Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Steven H. Huang
- Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Lan Yang
- Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
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6
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Guo Z, Qin Y, Chen P, Hu J, Zhou Y, Zhao X, Liu Z, Fei Y, Jiang X, Wu X. Hyperboloid-Drum Microdisk Laser Biosensors for Ultrasensitive Detection of Human IgG. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e2000239. [PMID: 32510822 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202000239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Whispering gallery mode (WGM) microresonators have been used as optical sensors in fundamental research and practical applications. The majority of WGM sensors are passive resonators that require complex systems, thereby limiting their practicality. Active resonators enable the remote excitation and collection of WGM-modulated fluorescence spectra, without requiring complex systems, and can be used as alternatives to passive microresonators. This paper demonstrates an active microresonator, which is a microdisk laser in a hyperboloid-drum (HD) shape. The HD microdisk lasers are a combination of a rhodamine B-doped photoresist and a silica microdisk. These HD microdisk lasers can be utilized for the detection of label-free biomolecules. The biomolecule concentration can be as low as 1 ag mL-1 , whereas the theoretical detection limit of the biosensor for human IgG in phosphate buffer saline is 9 ag mL-1 (0.06 aM ). Additionally, the biosensors are able to detect biomolecules in an artificial serum, with a theoretical detection limit of 9 ag mL-1 (0.06 aM ). These results are approximately four orders of magnitude more sensitive than those for the typical active WGM biosensors. The proposed HD microdisk laser biosensors show enormous detection potential for biomarkers in protein secretions or body fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihe Guo
- Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Photonic Structures (Ministry of Education), Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Yingchun Qin
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures and College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Peizong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Jinliang Hu
- Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Photonic Structures (Ministry of Education), Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Yi Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Photonic Structures (Ministry of Education), Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Xuyang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Photonic Structures (Ministry of Education), Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Zhiran Liu
- Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Photonic Structures (Ministry of Education), Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Yiyan Fei
- Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Photonic Structures (Ministry of Education), Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Xiaoshun Jiang
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures and College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Xiang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Photonic Structures (Ministry of Education), Department of Optical Science and Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
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7
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Single-molecule analysis of nucleic acid biomarkers - A review. Anal Chim Acta 2020; 1115:61-85. [PMID: 32370870 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Nucleic acids are important biomarkers for disease detection, monitoring, and treatment. Advances in technologies for nucleic acid analysis have enabled discovery and clinical implementation of nucleic acid biomarkers. However, challenges remain with technologies for nucleic acid analysis, thereby limiting the use of nucleic acid biomarkers in certain contexts. Here, we review single-molecule technologies for nucleic acid analysis that can be used to overcome these challenges. We first discuss the various types of nucleic acid biomarkers important for clinical applications and conventional technologies for nucleic acid analysis. We then discuss technologies for single-molecule in vitro and in situ analysis of nucleic acid biomarkers. Finally, we discuss other ultra-sensitive techniques for nucleic acid biomarker detection.
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8
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Luan E, Shoman H, Ratner DM, Cheung KC, Chrostowski L. Silicon Photonic Biosensors Using Label-Free Detection. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18103519. [PMID: 30340405 PMCID: PMC6210424 DOI: 10.3390/s18103519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Thanks to advanced semiconductor microfabrication technology, chip-scale integration and miniaturization of lab-on-a-chip components, silicon-based optical biosensors have made significant progress for the purpose of point-of-care diagnosis. In this review, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art in evanescent field biosensing technologies including interferometer, microcavity, photonic crystal, and Bragg grating waveguide-based sensors. Their sensing mechanisms and sensor performances, as well as real biomarkers for label-free detection, are exhibited and compared. We also review the development of chip-level integration for lab-on-a-chip photonic sensing platforms, which consist of the optical sensing device, flow delivery system, optical input and readout equipment. At last, some advanced system-level complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip packaging examples are presented, indicating the commercialization potential for the low cost, high yield, portable biosensing platform leveraging CMOS processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enxiao Luan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Hossam Shoman
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Daniel M Ratner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, 3720 15th Ave. NE, Seattle, WA 98195-5061, USA.
| | - Karen C Cheung
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Lukas Chrostowski
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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9
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Graybill RM, Cardenosa-Rubio MC, Yang H, Johnson MD, Bailey RC. Multiplexed microRNA Expression Profiling by Combined Asymmetric PCR and Label-Free Detection using Silicon Photonic Sensor Arrays. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2018; 10:1618-1623. [PMID: 30275912 PMCID: PMC6162071 DOI: 10.1039/c8ay00190a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Analysis methods based upon the quantitative, real-time polymerase chain reaction are extremely powerful; however, they face intrinsic limitations in terms of target multiplexing. In contrast, silicon photonic microring resonators represent a modularly multiplexable sensor array technology that is well-suited to the analysis of targeted biomarker panels. In this manuscript we employ an asymmetric polymerase chain reaction approach to selectively amplify copies of cDNAs generated from targeted miRNAs before multiplexed, label-free quantitation through hybridization to microring resonator arrays pre-functionalized with capture sequences. This method, which shows applicability to low input amounts and a large dynamic range, was demonstrated for the simultaneous detection of eight microRNA targets from twenty primary brain tumor samples with expression profiles in good agreement with literature precedent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M. Graybill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Matthews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Maria C. Cardenosa-Rubio
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Matthews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University Ave. Ann Arbor, MI 48104, USA
| | - Hongwei Yang
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Mark D. Johnson
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Ryan C. Bailey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Matthews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University Ave. Ann Arbor, MI 48104, USA
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10
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Cacheux J, Brut M, Bancaud A, Cordelier P, Leïchlé T. Spatial Analysis of Nanofluidic-Embedded Biosensors for Wash-Free Single-Nucleotide Difference Discrimination. ACS Sens 2018; 3:606-611. [PMID: 29437385 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.7b00667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we demonstrate that the analysis of spatially resolved nanofluidic-embedded biosensors permits the fast and direct discrimination of single-nucleotide difference (SND) within oligonucleotide sequences in a single step interaction. We design a sensor with a linear dimension much larger than the channel depth in order to ensure that the reaction over the whole sensor is limited by the convection rate. Thus, the targets are fully collected, inducing a nonuniform spatial hybridization profile. We also use the nanoscale height of the channel, which enables us to minimize the amount of labeled molecules flowing over the sensor and hence to reduce the fluorescence background, to carry out real-time hybridization detection by fluorescence microscopy. Taken together, these design rules allow us to show that the spatial hybridization profile depends on the duplex affinity, and we speculate that the on and off-rate constants can be inferred during target injection, which is not possible in local analysis where the dissociation step through rinsing must be conducted. We finally manage to discriminate a GT mismatch on a microRNA sequence by optimizing the interaction temperature and the probe design after a few minutes of interaction in a single step protocol. This work may be applied to any biosensing transduction scheme with spatial resolution, e.g., surface plasmon resonance imaging, integrated into nanofluidic channels for applications where high oligonucleotide sequence selectivity and short analysis times are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Cacheux
- LAAS-CNRS, Université
de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
- Université
Fédérale Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Université
Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, INSERM, CRCT, Toulouse, France
| | - Marie Brut
- LAAS-CNRS, Université
de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Pierre Cordelier
- Université
Fédérale Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Université
Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, INSERM, CRCT, Toulouse, France
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11
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Toren P, Ozgur E, Bayindir M. Label-Free Optical Biodetection of Pathogen Virulence Factors in Complex Media Using Microtoroids with Multifunctional Surface Functionality. ACS Sens 2018; 3:352-359. [PMID: 29336141 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.7b00775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Early detection of pathogens or their virulence factors in complex media has a key role in early diagnosis and treatment of many diseases. Nanomolar and selective detection of Exotoxin A, which is a virulence factor secreted from Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the sputum of Cystic Fibrosis (CF) patients, can pave the way for early diagnosis of P. aeruginosa infections. In this study, we conducted a preliminary study to demonstrate the feasibility of optical biodetection of P. aeruginosa Exotoxin A in a diluted artificial sputum mimicking the CF respiratory environment. Our surface engineering approach provides an effective biointerface enabling highly selective detection of the Exotoxin A molecules in the complex media using monoclonal anti-Exotoxin A functionalized microtoroids. The highly resilient microtoroid surface toward other constituents of the sputum provides Exotoxin A detection ability in the complex media by reproducible measurements. In this study, the limit-of-detection of Exotoxin A in the complex media is calculated as 2.45 nM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pelin Toren
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, §UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, and ‡Department of Physics, Bilkent University , 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Erol Ozgur
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, §UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, and ‡Department of Physics, Bilkent University , 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Bayindir
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, §UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, and ‡Department of Physics, Bilkent University , 06800 Ankara, Turkey
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12
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Robison HM, Bailey RC. A Guide to Quantitative Biomarker Assay Development using Whispering Gallery Mode Biosensors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 9:158-173. [PMID: 28910857 DOI: 10.1002/cpch.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Whispering gallery mode (WGM) sensors are a class of powerful analytical techniques defined by the measurement of changes in the local refractive index at or near the sensor surface. When functionalized with target-specific capture agents, analyte binding can be measured with very low limits of detection. There are many geometric manifestations of WGM sensors, with chip-integrated silicon photonic devices first commercialized because of the robust, wafer-scale device fabrication, facile optical interrogation, and amenability to the creation of multiplexed sensor arrays. Using these arrays, a number of biomolecular targets have been detected in both label-free and label-enhanced assay formats. For example, sub-picomolar detection limits for multiple cytokines were achieved using an enzymatically enhanced sandwich immunoassay that showed high analyte specificity suitable for detection in complex, clinical matrices. This protocol describes a generalizable approach for the development of quantitative, multiplexed immunoassays using silicon photonic microrings as an example WGM platform. © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ryan C Bailey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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13
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Kim E, Baaske MD, Vollmer F. Towards next-generation label-free biosensors: recent advances in whispering gallery mode sensors. LAB ON A CHIP 2017; 17:1190-1205. [PMID: 28265608 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc01595f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Whispering gallery mode biosensors have been widely exploited over the past decade to study molecular interactions by virtue of their high sensitivity and applicability in real-time kinetic analysis without the requirement to label. There have been immense research efforts made for advancing the instrumentation as well as the design of detection assays, with the common goal of progressing towards real-world sensing applications. We therefore review a set of recent developments made in this field and discuss the requirements that whispering gallery mode label-free sensors need to fulfill for making a real world impact outside of the laboratory. These requirements are directly related to the challenges that these sensors face, and the methods proposed to overcome them are discussed. Moving forward, we provide the future prospects and the potential impact of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene Kim
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Staudtstrabe 2, 91058 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Martin D Baaske
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Staudtstrabe 2, 91058 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Frank Vollmer
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Staudtstrabe 2, 91058 Erlangen, Germany. and Living Systems Institute, School of Physics, University of Exeter, Exeter EX44QD, UK.
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14
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Stanton ALD, Serrano KA, Braun PV, Bailey RC. Polymer Brush-Modified Microring Resonators for Partition-Enhanced Small Molecule Chemical Detection. ChemistrySelect 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201700082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandria L. D. Stanton
- Department of Chemistry; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; 600 S. Mathews Ave. Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Kali A. Serrano
- Department of Chemistry; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; 600 S. Mathews Ave. Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Paul V. Braun
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; 1304 W. Green St. Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Ryan C. Bailey
- Department of Chemistry; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; 600 S. Mathews Ave. Urbana, IL 61801
- Current address: Department of Chemistry; University of Michigan; 930 N. University Ave. Ann Arbor, MI 48109
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15
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Graybill RM, Para CS, Bailey RC. PCR-Free, Multiplexed Expression Profiling of microRNAs Using Silicon Photonic Microring Resonators. Anal Chem 2016; 88:10347-10351. [PMID: 27726377 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We describe an approach for multiplexed microRNA analysis using silicon photonic microring resonators to detect cDNA reverse transcription products via a subsequent enzymatic signal enhancement strategy. Key to this method is a modified stem loop primer that facilitates downstream signal amplification via enzymatic turnover and improves the sensor signal 20-fold when compared to traditional stem loop primers. This approach facilitates targeted microRNA quantification in only 2.5 h and without requiring target amplification via the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Primers for 7 miRNA targets were orthogonally designed to avoid cross-hybridization between capture probes. This approach was applied to the detection of total RNA from human tissues and found to display differential expression profiles consistent with literature precedent. This development holds promise as an alternative to single-plex RT-qPCR methods and more expensive RNA-seq by offering a cost-effective method to analyze targeted miRNA panels in emerging diagnostic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Graybill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , 600 S. Matthews Ave., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Christopher S Para
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , 600 S. Matthews Ave., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Ryan C Bailey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , 600 S. Matthews Ave., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan , 930 N. University Ave., Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104, United States
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16
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Toren P, Ozgur E, Bayindir M. Oligonucleotide-based label-free detection with optical microresonators: strategies and challenges. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:2572-2595. [PMID: 27306702 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc00521g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This review targets diversified oligonucleotide-based biodetection techniques, focusing on the use of microresonators of whispering gallery mode (WGM) type as optical biosensors mostly integrated with lab-on-a-chip systems. On-chip and microfluidics combined devices along with optical microresonators provide rapid, robust, reproducible and multiplexed biodetection abilities in considerably small volumes. We present a detailed overview of the studies conducted so far, including biodetection of various oligonucleotide biomarkers as well as deoxyribonucleic acids (DNAs), ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and proteins. We particularly advert to chemical surface modifications for specific and selective biosensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pelin Toren
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey. and UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Erol Ozgur
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey. and UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Bayindir
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey. and UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey and Department of Physics, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
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17
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Kausar A, Osman EA, Gadzikwa T, Gibbs-Davis JM. The presence of a 5'-abasic lesion enhances discrimination of single nucleotide polymorphisms while inducing an isothermal ligase chain reaction. Analyst 2016; 141:4272-7. [PMID: 27326790 DOI: 10.1039/c6an00614k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Lesion-induced DNA amplification (LIDA) has been employed in the detection of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Due to the presence of the proximal abasic lesion, T4 DNA ligase exhibits greater intolerance to basepair mismatches when compared with mismatch ligation in the absence of the abasic lesion. Moreover the presence of the abasic group also results in an isothermal ligase chain reaction enabling SNP detection with great discrimination and sensitivity. Specifically, at forty minutes, the ratio of amplified product from the matched and mismatched initiated reactions are 7-12 depending on the mismatch. The ease of implementation of our method is demonstrated by real-time analysis of DNA amplification using a fluorescent plate reader.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abu Kausar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2G2, Canada.
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18
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Wade JH, Bailey RC. Applications of Optical Microcavity Resonators in Analytical Chemistry. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2016; 9:1-25. [PMID: 27049629 PMCID: PMC5818158 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-071015-041742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Optical resonator sensors are an emerging class of analytical technologies that use recirculating light confined within a microcavity to sensitively measure the surrounding environment. Bolstered by advances in microfabrication, these devices can be configured for a wide variety of chemical or biomolecular sensing applications. We begin with a brief description of optical resonator sensor operation, followed by discussions regarding sensor design, including different geometries, choices of material systems, methods of sensor interrogation, and new approaches to sensor operation. Throughout, key developments are highlighted, including advancements in biosensing and other applications of optical sensors. We discuss the potential of alternative sensing mechanisms and hybrid sensing devices for more sensitive and rapid analyses. We conclude with our perspective on the future of optical microcavity sensors and their promise as versatile detection elements within analytical chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- James H Wade
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801;
| | - Ryan C Bailey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801;
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19
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Peterson EM, Manhart MW, Harris JM. Competitive Assays of Label-Free DNA Hybridization with Single-Molecule Fluorescence Imaging Detection. Anal Chem 2016; 88:6410-7. [PMID: 27203690 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b00992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Single-molecule imaging of fluorescently labeled biomolecules is a powerful technique for measuring association interactions; however, care must be taken to ensure that the fluorescent labels do not influence the system being probed. Label-free techniques are needed to understand biomolecule interactions free from the influence of an attached label, but these techniques often lack sensitivity and specificity. To solve these challenges, we have developed a competitive assay that uses single-molecule detection to track the population of unlabeled target single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) hybridized with probe DNA immobilized at a glass interface by detecting individual duplexes with a fluorescently labeled "tracer" ssDNA. By labeling a small fraction (<0.2%) of target molecules, the "tracer" DNA tracks the available probe DNA sites without significant competition with the unlabeled target population. Single-molecule fluorescence imaging is a good read-out scheme for competitive assays, as it is sufficiently sensitive to detect tracer DNA on substrates with relatively low densities of probe DNA, ∼10(-3) of a monolayer, so that steric interactions do not hinder DNA hybridization. Competitive assays are used to measure the association constant of complementary strand DNA hybridization of 9- and 10-base pair targets, where the tracer assay predicts the same association constant as a traditional displacement competitive assay. This methodology was used to compare the Ka of hybridization for identical DNA strands differing only by the presence of a fluorescent label tethered to the 5' end of the solution-phase target. The addition of the fluorescent label significantly stabilizes the DNA duplex by 3.6 kJmol(-1), adding more stability than an additional adenine-thymine base-pairing interaction, 2.7 kJmol(-1). This competitive tracer assay could be used to screen a number of labeled and unlabeled target DNA strands to measure the impact of fluorescent labeling on duplex stability. This single-molecule competitive hybridization scheme could be easily adapted into a sensitive assay, where competition between tracer and target oligonucleotides for probe sites could be used to measure concentrations of unlabeled DNA or RNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric M Peterson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah , 315 South 1400, East Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Michael W Manhart
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah , 315 South 1400, East Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Joel M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah , 315 South 1400, East Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
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20
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Peterson EM, Manhart MW, Harris JM. Single-Molecule Fluorescence Imaging of Interfacial DNA Hybridization Kinetics at Selective Capture Surfaces. Anal Chem 2016; 88:1345-54. [PMID: 26695617 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b03832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Accurate knowledge of the kinetics of complementary oligonucleotide hybridization is integral to the design and understanding of DNA-based biosensors. In this work, single-molecule fluorescence imaging is applied to measuring rates of hybridization between fluorescently labeled target ssDNA and unlabeled probe ssDNA immobilized on glass surfaces. In the absence of probe site labeling, the capture surface must be highly selective to avoid the influence of nonspecific adsorption on the interpretation of single-molecule imaging results. This is accomplished by increasing the probe molecule site densities by a factor of ∼100 compared to optically resolvable sites so that nonspecific interactions compete with a much greater number of capture sites and by immobilizing sulfonate groups to passivate the surface between probe strands. The resulting substrates exhibit very low nonspecific adsorption, and the selectivity for binding a complementary target sequence exceeds that of a scrambled sequence by nearly 3 orders of magnitude. The population of immobilized DNA probe sites is quantified by counting individual DNA duplexes at low target concentrations, and those results are used to calibrate fluorescence intensities on the same sample at much higher target concentrations to measure a full binding isotherm. Dissociation rates are determined from interfacial residence times of individual DNA duplexes. Equilibrium and rate constants of hybridization, K(a) = 38 (±1) μM(-1), k(on) = 1.64 (±0.06) × 10(6) M(-1) s(-1), and k(off) = 4.3 (±0.1) × 10(-2) s(-1), were found not to change with surface density of immobilized probe DNA, indicating that hybridization events at neighboring probe sites are independent. To test the influence of probe-strand immobilization on hybridization, the kinetics of the probe target reaction at the surface were compared with the same reaction in free solution, and the equilibrium constants and dissociation and association rates were found to be nearly equivalent. The selectivity of these capture surfaces should facilitate sensitive investigations of DNA hybridization at the limit of counting molecules. Because the immobilized probe DNA on these surfaces is unlabeled, photobleaching of a probe label is not an issue, allowing capture substrates to be used for long periods of time or even reused in multiple experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric M Peterson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah , 315 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Michael W Manhart
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah , 315 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Joel M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah , 315 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
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21
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Strachan BC, Sloane HS, Lee JC, Leslie DC, Landers JP. Investigation of the DNA target design parameters for effective hybridization-induced aggregation of particles for the sequence-specific detection of DNA. Analyst 2015; 140:2008-15. [PMID: 25673152 DOI: 10.1039/c4an02101k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In a recent publication, we presented a label-free method for the detection of specific DNA sequences through the hybridization-induced aggregation (HIA) of a pair of oligonucleotide-adducted magnetic particles. Here we show, through the use of modified hardware, that we are able to simultaneously analyze multiple (4) samples, and detect a 26-mer ssDNA sequence at femtomolar concentrations in minutes. As such, this work represents an improvement in throughput and a 100-fold improvement in sensitivity, compared to that reported previously. Here, we also investigate the design parameters of the target sequence, in an effort to maximize the sensitivity of HIA and to use as a guide in future applications of this work. Modifications were made to the original 26-mer oligonucleotide sequence to evaluate the effects of: (1) non-complementary flanking bases, (2) target sequence length, and (3) single base mismatches on aggregation response. The aggregation response decreased as the number of the non-complementary flanking bases increased, with only a five base addition lowering the LOD by four orders of magnitude. Low sensitivity was observed with short sequences of 6 and 10 complementary bases, which were only detectable at micromolar concentrations. Target sequences with 20, 26 or 32 complementary bases provided the greatest sensitivity and were detectable at femtomolar concentrations. Additionally, HIA could effectively differentiate sequences that were fully complementary from those containing 1, 2 or 3 single base mismatches at micromolar concentrations. The robustness of the HIA system to other buffer components was explored with nine potential assay interferents that could affect hybridization (aggregation) or falsely induce aggregation. Of these, purified BSA and lysed whole blood induced a false aggregation. None of the interferents inhibited aggregation when the hybridizing target was added. Having delineated the fundamental parameters affecting HIA-target hybridization, and demonstrating that HIA had the selectivity to detect single base mismatches, this fluor-free end-point detection has the potential to become a powerful tool for microfluidic DNA detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Briony C Strachan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
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22
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Foreman MR, Swaim JD, Vollmer F. Whispering gallery mode sensors. ADVANCES IN OPTICS AND PHOTONICS 2015; 7:168-240. [PMID: 26973759 PMCID: PMC4786191 DOI: 10.1364/aop.7.000168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
We present a comprehensive overview of sensor technology exploiting optical whispering gallery mode (WGM) resonances. After a short introduction we begin by detailing the fundamental principles and theory of WGMs in optical microcavities and the transduction mechanisms frequently employed for sensing purposes. Key recent theoretical contributions to the modeling and analysis of WGM systems are highlighted. Subsequently we review the state of the art of WGM sensors by outlining efforts made to date to improve current detection limits. Proposals in this vein are numerous and range, for example, from plasmonic enhancements and active cavities to hybrid optomechanical sensors, which are already working in the shot noise limited regime. In parallel to furthering WGM sensitivity, efforts to improve the time resolution are beginning to emerge. We therefore summarize the techniques being pursued in this vein. Ultimately WGM sensors aim for real-world applications, such as measurements of force and temperature, or alternatively gas and biosensing. Each such application is thus reviewed in turn, and important achievements are discussed. Finally, we adopt a more forward-looking perspective and discuss the outlook of WGM sensors within both a physical and biological context and consider how they may yet push the detection envelope further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Foreman
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Laboratory of Nanophotonics and Biosensing, Günther-Scharowsky-Straße 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jon D. Swaim
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Laboratory of Nanophotonics and Biosensing, Günther-Scharowsky-Straße 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Frank Vollmer
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Laboratory of Nanophotonics and Biosensing, Günther-Scharowsky-Straße 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
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23
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Rodriguez GA, Hu S, Weiss SM. Porous silicon ring resonator for compact, high sensitivity biosensing applications. OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 23:7111-7119. [PMID: 25837056 DOI: 10.1364/oe.23.007111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A ring resonator is patterned on a porous silicon slab waveguide to produce a compact, high quality factor biosensor with a large internal surface area available for enhanced recognition of biological and chemical molecules. The porous nature of the ring resonator allows molecules to directly interact with the guided mode. Quality factors near 10,000 were measured for porous silicon ring resonators with a radius of 25 μm. A bulk detection sensitivity of 380 nm/RIU was measured upon exposure to salt water solutions. Specific detection of nucleic acid molecules was demonstrated with a surface detection sensitivity of 4 pm/nM.
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24
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Su Q, Wesner D, Schönherr H, Nöll G. Molecular beacon modified sensor chips for oligonucleotide detection with optical readout. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:14360-14367. [PMID: 25363421 DOI: 10.1021/la504105x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Three different surface bound molecular beacons (MBs) were investigated using surface plasmon fluorescence spectroscopy (SPFS) as an optical readout technique. While MB1 and MB2, both consisting of 36 bases, differed only in the length of the linker for surface attachment, the significantly longer MB3, consisting of 56 bases, comprised an entirely different sequence. For sensor chip preparation, the MBs were chemisorbed on gold via thiol anchors together with different thiol spacers. The influence of important parameters, such as the length of the MBs, the length of the linker between the MBs and the gold surface, the length and nature of the thiol spacers, and the ratio between the MBs and the thiol spacers was studied. After hybridization with the target, the fluorophore of the longer MB3 was oriented close to the surface, and the shorter MBs were standing more or less upright, leading to a larger increase in fluorescence intensity. Fluorescence microscopy revealed a homogeneous distribution of the MBs on the surface. The sensor chips could be used for simple and fast detection of target molecules with a limit of detection in the larger picomolar range. The response time was between 5 and 20 min. Furthermore, it was possible to distinguish between fully complementary and singly mismatched targets. While rinsing with buffer solution after hybridization with target did not result in any signal decrease, complete dehybridization could be carried out by intense rinsing with pure water. The MB modified sensor chips could be prepared in a repeatable manner and reused many times without significant decrease in performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Su
- Nöll Junior Research Group, Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biology, Faculty IV, Siegen University , Adolf-Reichwein-Strasse 2, 57068 Siegen, Germany
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25
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Han J, Tan M, Sudheendra L, Weiss RH, Kennedy IM. On-chip detection of a single nucleotide polymorphism without polymerase amplification. NANO RESEARCH 2014; 7:1302-1310. [PMID: 25580203 PMCID: PMC4286159 DOI: 10.1007/s12274-014-0494-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
A nanoparticle-assembled photonic crystal (PC) array was used to detect single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). The assay platform with PC nanostructure enhanced the fluorescent signal from nanoparticle-hybridized DNA complexes due to phase matching of excitation and emission. Nanoparticles coupled with probe DNA were trapped into nanowells in an array by using an electrophoretic particle entrapment system. The PC/DNA assay platform was able to identify a 1 base pair (bp) difference in synthesized nucleotide sequences that mimicked the mutation seen in a feline model of human autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (PKD) with a sensitivity of 0.9 fg/mL (50 aM)-sensitivity, which corresponds to 30 oligos/array. The reliability of the PC/DNA assay platform to detect SNP in a real sample was demonstrated by using genomic DNA (gDNA) extracted from the urine and blood of two PKD- wild type and three PKD positive cats. The standard curves for PKD positive (PKD+) and negative (PKD-) DNA were created using two feline-urine samples. An additional three urine samples were analyzed in a similar fashion and showed satisfactory agreement with the standard curve, confirming the presence of the mutation in affected urine. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.005 ng/mL which corresponds to 6 fg per array for gDNA in urine and blood. The PC system demonstrated the ability to detect a number of genome equivalents for the PKD SNP that was very similar to the results reported with real time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The favorable comparison with quantitative PCR suggests that the PC technology may find application well beyond the detection of the PKD SNP, into areas where a simple, cheap and portable nucleic acid analysis is desirable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhee Han
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Matthew Tan
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Lakshmana Sudheendra
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Robert H Weiss
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA ; Medical Service, Sacramento VA Medical Center, Sacramento, California, 95655, USA
| | - Ian M Kennedy
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
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26
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Wu Y, Zhang DY, Yin P, Vollmer F. Ultraspecific and highly sensitive nucleic acid detection by integrating a DNA catalytic network with a label-free microcavity. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2014; 10:2067-76. [PMID: 24585636 PMCID: PMC4096343 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201303558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2013] [Revised: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Nucleic acid detection with label-free biosensors circumvents costly fluorophore functionalization steps associated with conventional assays by utilizing transducers of impressive ultimate detection limits. Despite this technological prowess, molecular recognition at a surface limits the biosensors' sensitivity, specificity, and reusability. It is therefore imperative to integrate novel molecular approaches with existing label-free transducers to overcome those limitations. Here, we demonstrate this concept by integrating a DNA strand displacement circuit with a micron-scale whispering gallery mode (WGM) microsphere biosensor. The integrated biosensor exhibits at least 25-fold improved nucleic acid sensitivity, and sets a new record for label-free microcavity biosensors by detecting 80 pM (32 fmol) of a 22nt oligomer; this improvement results from the catalytic behavior of the circuit. Furthermore, the integrated sensor exhibits extremely high specificity; single nucleotide variants yield 40- to 100-fold lower signal. Finally, the same physical sensor was demonstrated to alternatingly detect 2 different nucleic acid sequences through 5 cycles of detection, showcasing both its reusability and its versatility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqiang Wu
- Laboratory of Nanophotonics and Biosensing, Max Planck Insitute for the Science of Light, Erlangen 91058, Germany
| | - David Yu Zhang
- Department of Bioengineering Rice, University Houston, USA
| | - Peng Yin
- The Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering and Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Frank Vollmer
- Laboratory of Nanophotonics and Biosensing, Max Planck Insitute for the Science of Light, Erlangen 91058, Germany. Division of Biomedical Engineering, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
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27
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Kindt JT, Luchansky MS, Qavi AJ, Lee SH, Bailey RC. Subpicogram per milliliter detection of interleukins using silicon photonic microring resonators and an enzymatic signal enhancement strategy. Anal Chem 2013; 85:10653-7. [PMID: 24171505 DOI: 10.1021/ac402972d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The detection of biomolecules at ultralow (low to subpicogram per milliliter) concentrations and within complex, clinically relevant matrices is a formidable challenge that is complicated by limitations imposed by the Langmuir binding isotherm and mass transport, for surface-based affinity biosensors. Here we report the integration of an enzymatic signal enhancement scheme onto a multiplexable silicon photonic microring resonator detection platform. To demonstrate the analytical value of this combination, we simultaneously quantitated levels of the interleukins IL-2, IL-6, and IL-8 in undiluted cerebrospinal fluid in an assay format that is multiplexable, relatively rapid (90 min), and features a 3 order of magnitude dynamic range and a limit of detection ≤1 pg/mL. The modular nature of this assay and technology should lend itself broadly amenable to different analyte classes, making it a versatile tool for biomarker analysis in clinically relevant settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared T Kindt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , 600 S. Matthews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, United States
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28
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Biomolecular analysis with microring resonators: applications in multiplexed diagnostics and interaction screening. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2013; 17:818-26. [PMID: 23871688 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2013.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2013] [Revised: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Microring optical resonators are a promising class of sensor whose value in bioanalytical applications has only begun to be explored. Utilized in the telecommunication industry for signal processing applications, microring resonators have more recently been re-tasked for biosensing because of their scalability, sensitivity, and versatility. Their sensing modality arises from light/matter interactions--light propagating through the microring and the resultant evanescent field extending beyond the structure is sensitive to the refractive index of the local environment, which modulates resonant wavelength of light supported by the cavity. This sensing capability has recently been utilized for the detection of numerous biological targets including proteins, nucleic acids, viruses, and small molecules. Herein we highlight some of the most exciting recent uses of this technology for biosensing applications, with an eye towards future developments in the field.
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29
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Kuhnline Sloan CD, Marty MT, Sligar SG, Bailey RC. Interfacing lipid bilayer nanodiscs and silicon photonic sensor arrays for multiplexed protein-lipid and protein-membrane protein interaction screening. Anal Chem 2013; 85:2970-6. [PMID: 23425255 PMCID: PMC3600637 DOI: 10.1021/ac3037359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Soluble proteins are key mediators of many biochemical signaling pathways via direct interaction with the lipid bilayer and via membrane-bound receptors. Components of the cell membrane are involved in many important biological processes, including viral infection, blood clotting, and signal transduction, and as such, they are common targets of therapeutic agents. Therefore, the development of analytical approaches to study interactions at the cell membrane is of critical importance. Herein, we integrate two key technologies, silicon photonic microring resonator arrays and phospholipid bilayer nanodiscs, which together allow multiplexed screening of soluble protein interactions with lipid and membrane-embedded targets. Microring resonator arrays are an intrinsically multiplexable, label-free analysis platform that has previously been applied to studying protein-protein, protein-nucleic acid, and nucleic acid-nucleic acid interactions. Nanodiscs are protein-stabilized lipid assemblies that represent a convenient construct to mimic the native phospholipid bilayer, investigate the effects of membrane composition, and solubilize membrane-embedded targets. Exploiting the natural affinity of nanodisc-supported lipid bilayers for oxide-passivated silicon, we assembled single and multiplex sensor arrays via direct physisorption, characterizing electrostatic effects on the nanodisc attachment. Using model systems, we demonstrate the applicability of this platform for the parallel screening of protein interactions with nanodisc-embedded lipids, glycolipids, and membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael T. Marty
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801
| | - Stephen G. Sligar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801
| | - Ryan C. Bailey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801
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30
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Kim KW, Song J, Kee JS, Liu Q, Lo GQ, Park MK. Label-free biosensor based on an electrical tracing-assisted silicon microring resonator with a low-cost broadband source. Biosens Bioelectron 2013; 46:15-21. [PMID: 23500471 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2012] [Revised: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/02/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
We present a novel biosensor based on an electrical tracing-assisted silicon dual-microring resonator sensor system. The dual-microring system comprises one microring resonator as a sensing element and the other microring resonator integrated with an electrical controller as a tracing element. The resonance wavelength shift of the sensing microring induced by the refractive index change due to antigen-ligand bindings is traced and determined by direct voltage applied to the electrical tunable tracing microring. The sensor system enables the use of a low-cost broadband light source instead of a bulky and expensive tunable laser, which allows the development of cost-effective point-of-care diagnostic devices by significantly reducing the device cost and increasing its portability. The sensing capability of the developed dual-microring sensor was investigated using biotin-streptavidin binding as a model system. We have demonstrated the quantitative detection of streptavidin over a broad range of concentrations down to 190 pM by monitoring the electrical power applied to the tracing ring. We have also validated the sensing principle of the dual-microring system by a direct comparison between the calculated and measured values for the resonance wavelength shift of the sensing microring. Furthermore, we have shown the quantitative and specific detection of a well-known breast cancer biomarker, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), in a bovine serum albumin solution using the antibody-modified dual-microring sensor system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyung Woo Kim
- Institute of Microelectronics, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 11 Science Park Road, Singapore Science Park II, Singapore 117685, Singapore
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Bañuls MJ, Puchades R, Maquieira Á. Chemical surface modifications for the development of silicon-based label-free integrated optical (IO) biosensors: a review. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 777:1-16. [PMID: 23622959 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Revised: 01/03/2013] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Increasing interest has been paid to label-free biosensors in recent years. Among them, refractive index (RI) optical biosensors enable high density and the chip-scale integration of optical components. This makes them more appealing to help develop lab-on-a-chip devices. Today, many RI integrated optical (IO) devices are made using silicon-based materials. A key issue in their development is the biofunctionalization of sensing surfaces because they provide a specific, sensitive response to the analyte of interest. This review critically discusses the biofunctionalization procedures, assay formats and characterization techniques employed in setting up IO biosensors. In addition, it provides the most relevant results obtained from using these devices for real sample biosensing. Finally, an overview of the most promising future developments in the fields of chemical surface modification and capture agent attachment for IO biosensors follows.
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Affiliation(s)
- María-José Bañuls
- Centro de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Departamento de Química, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain.
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Vollmer F, Yang L. Label-free detection with high-Q microcavities: a review of biosensing mechanisms for integrated devices. NANOPHOTONICS 2012; 1:267-291. [PMID: 26918228 PMCID: PMC4764104 DOI: 10.1515/nanoph-2012-0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Optical microcavities that confine light in high-Q resonance promise all of the capabilities required for a successful next-generation microsystem biodetection technology. Label-free detection down to single molecules as well as operation in aqueous environments can be integrated cost-effectively on microchips, together with other photonic components, as well as electronic ones. We provide a comprehensive review of the sensing mechanisms utilized in this emerging field, their physics, engineering and material science aspects, and their application to nanoparticle analysis and biomolecular detection. We survey the most recent developments such as the use of mode splitting for self-referenced measurements, plasmonic nanoantennas for signal enhancements, the use of optical force for nanoparticle manipulation as well as the design of active devices for ultra-sensitive detection. Furthermore, we provide an outlook on the exciting capabilities of functionalized high-Q microcavities in the life sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Vollmer
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Laboratory of Nanophotonics and Biosensing, G. Scharowsky Str. 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Lan Yang
- Electrical and Systems Engineering Department, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
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Kindt JT, Bailey RC. Chaperone probes and bead-based enhancement to improve the direct detection of mRNA using silicon photonic sensor arrays. Anal Chem 2012; 84:8067-74. [PMID: 22913333 DOI: 10.1021/ac3019813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we describe the utility of chaperone probes and a bead-based signal enhancement strategy for the analysis of full length mRNA transcripts using arrays of silicon photonic microring resonators. Changes in the local refractive index near microring sensors associated with biomolecular binding events are transduced as a shift in the resonant wavelength supported by the cavity, enabling the sensitive analysis of numerous analytes of interest. We employ the sensing platform for both the direct and bead-enhanced detection of three different mRNA transcripts, achieving a dynamic range spanning over 4 orders of magnitude and demonstrating expression profiling capabilities in total RNA extracts from the HL-60 cell line. Small, dual-use DNA chaperone molecules were developed and found to both enhance the binding kinetics of mRNA transcripts by disrupting complex secondary structure and serve as sequence-specific linkers for subsequent bead amplification. Importantly, this approach does not require amplification of the mRNA transcript, thereby allowing for simplified analyses that do not require expensive enzymatic reagents or temperature ramping capabilities associated with RT-PCR-based methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared T Kindt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 61801, USA
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A fluorescent molecular switch for room temperature operation based on oligonucleotide hybridization without labeling of probes or targets. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 750:182-90. [PMID: 23062439 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2012] [Accepted: 05/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A molecular switch was prepared by self-assembly. Neutravidin served as a template that allowed for a biotinylated probe oligonucleotide to be placed adjacent to a biotinylated long-chain linker that was terminated with thiazole orange (TO). Hybridization of probe oligonucleotide with target to form double-stranded DNA resulted in intercalation of the adjacent TO probe. This was a reversible process that could be tracked by fluorescence intensity changes. Formamide was used as a denaturant for double-stranded DNA, and could be used to depress thermal denaturation temperatures. In this work formamide had a dual function, providing for control of hybridization selectivity at room temperature, while concurrently ameliorating non-specific adsorption to improve signal-to-noise when using thiazole orange as a fluorescence signalling agent to determine oligonucleotide hybridization. Room temperature single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) discrimination for oligonucleotide targets was achieved both in solution and for molecular switches that were immobilized onto optical fibers. In solution, a concentration of 18.5% formamide provided greater than 40-fold signal difference between single-stranded DNA and double-stranded DNA, in contrast to only a 2-fold difference in the absence of formamide. Selectivity for SNP determination in solution was demonstrated using targets of varying lengths including a 141-base PCR amplicon. The improved signal-to-noise achieved by use of formamide is likely due to preferential displacement of dye molecules that are otherwise electrostatically bound to the polyanionic nucleic acid backbone.
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Scheler O, Kindt JT, Qavi AJ, Kaplinski L, Glynn B, Barry T, Kurg A, Bailey RC. Label-free, multiplexed detection of bacterial tmRNA using silicon photonic microring resonators. Biosens Bioelectron 2012; 36:56-61. [PMID: 22541813 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2012.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2011] [Revised: 03/11/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A label-free biosensing method for the sensitive detection and identification of bacterial transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA) is presented employing arrays of silicon photonic microring resonators. Species specific tmRNA molecules are targeted by complementary DNA capture probes that are covalently attached to the sensor surface. Specific hybridization is monitored in near real-time by observing the resonance wavelength shift of each individual microring. The sensitivity of the biosensing platform allowed for detection down to 53 fmol of Streptococcus pneumoniae tmRNA, equivalent to approximately 3.16×10(7) CFU of bacteria. The simplicity and scalability of this biosensing approach makes it a promising tool for the rapid identification of different bacteria via tmRNA profiling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ott Scheler
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
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Barrios CA. Integrated microring resonator sensor arrays for labs-on-chips. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:1467-75. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-5937-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Revised: 03/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S. Luchansky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Ryan C. Bailey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801
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Luchansky MS, Bailey RC. Rapid, multiparameter profiling of cellular secretion using silicon photonic microring resonator arrays. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133:20500-6. [PMID: 22040005 DOI: 10.1021/ja2087618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a silicon photonic biosensing chip capable of multiplexed protein measurements in a biomolecularly complex cell culture matrix. Using this multiplexed platform combined with fast one-step sandwich immunoassays, we perform a variety of T cell cytokine secretion studies with excellent time-to-result. Using 32-element arrays of silicon photonic microring resonators, the cytokines interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-5 (IL-5), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) were simultaneously quantified with high accuracy in serum-containing cell media. Utilizing this cytokine panel, secretion profiles were obtained for primary human Th0, Th1, and Th2 subsets differentiated from naïve CD4+ T cells, and we show the ability to discriminate between lineage commitments at early stages of culture differentiation. We also utilize this approach to probe the temporal secretion patterns of each T cell type using real-time binding analyses for direct cytokine quantitation down to ∼100 pM with just a 5 min-analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Luchansky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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