1
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Ma Y, Zhao Y, Liu R, Wang D. Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy Featuring Transient Current Signals in Carbon Nanopipets with Dilute or No Redox Mediator. Anal Chem 2022; 94:11124-11128. [PMID: 35920511 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we report a sensitive scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) method based on the high transient current signals in carbon nanopipets (CNPs) under step potential waveforms. Taking advantage of the transient peak current, the approach curve can be conducted with very dilute (1 μM) or even no redox mediator and fitted by the scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) theory. In addition, a trace amount of electroactive species generated at the substrate can also be directly revealed from the transient current at the CNP tips. With the established feedback and generation/collection methods, we present the constant-height topography and electroactivity imaging of the substrates with only 1 μM K4Fe(CN)6. The developed new SECM method would allow the usage of CNPs to achieve both high sensitivity and spatial resolution with dilute or no redox mediator and thus find great potential applications in biological and electrocatalytic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingfei Ma
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Yingjie Zhao
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Rujia Liu
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Dengchao Wang
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
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2
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Valiūnienė A, Petroniene J, Morkvenaite-Vilkonciene I, Popkirov G, Ramanaviciene A, Ramanavicius A. Redox-probe-free scanning electrochemical microscopy combined with fast Fourier transform electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2019; 21:9831-9836. [PMID: 31026009 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp00187e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) hybridized with fast Fourier transform-based electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (FFT-EIS) seems to be a powerful variation of scanning electrochemical impedance microscopy (SEIM), wherein both state-of-the-art techniques are combined (FFT-SEIM) and can be used for the investigation and treatment of tissues at single cell level. However, in most EIS-based experiments, harmful redox mediators are applied, which affect the functioning of living cells and tissues. Therefore, the development of a redox-probe-free FFT-SEIM is still a very important challenge in electrochemistry. For this reason, in this research, we have demonstrated a redox-probe-free evaluation of conducting and non-conducting surfaces by combining scanning electrochemical microscopy with FFT-EIS. It was demonstrated that using the fast Fourier transform-based FFT-EIS technique, EIS spectra could be registered much faster compared to experiments performed using the conventional EIS equipment. An ultramicroelectrode (UME) was used as a scanning electrode to ensure high spatial resolution. We have performed FFT-SEIM measurements in a redox-probe-free mode (without any additional redox probes) and have investigated several surfaces with different conductivities. The FFT-EIS equipment and the built-in software help to avoid the influence of possible formation of hydrogen bubbles on the UME. This research opens up a new avenue for the application of FFT-SEIM in the investigation of samples that are unstable and very sensitive towards redox mediators (e.g., tissues and/or living cells).
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Affiliation(s)
- Aušra Valiūnienė
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Naugarduko Str. 24, Vilnius, Lithuania.
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3
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Abstract
Advances in microfluidic techniques have prompted researchers to study the inherent heterogeneity of single cells in cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiushi Huang
- Department of Chemistry
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology
- Tsinghua University
- Beijing 100084
| | - Sifeng Mao
- Department of Chemistry
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology
- Tsinghua University
- Beijing 100084
| | - Mashooq Khan
- Department of Chemistry
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology
- Tsinghua University
- Beijing 100084
| | - Jin-Ming Lin
- Department of Chemistry
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology
- Tsinghua University
- Beijing 100084
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4
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Voci S, Goudeau B, Valenti G, Lesch A, Jović M, Rapino S, Paolucci F, Arbault S, Sojic N. Surface-Confined Electrochemiluminescence Microscopy of Cell Membranes. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:14753-14760. [PMID: 30336008 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b08080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Herein is reported a surface-confined microscopy based on electrochemiluminescence (ECL) that allows to image the plasma membrane of single cells at the interface with an electrode. By analyzing photoluminescence (PL), ECL and AFM images of mammalian CHO cells, we demonstrate that, in contrast to the wide-field fluorescence, ECL emission is confined to the immediate vicinity of the electrode surface and only the basal membrane of the cell becomes luminescent. The resulting ECL microscopy reveals details that are not resolved by classic fluorescence microscopy, without any light irradiation and specific setup. The thickness of the ECL-emitting regions is ∼500 nm due to the unique ECL mechanism that involves short-lifetime electrogenerated radicals. In addition, the reported ECL microscopy is a dynamic technique that reflects the transport properties through the cell membranes and not only the specific labeling of the membranes. Finally, disposable transparent carbon nanotube (CNT)-based electrodes inkjet-printed on classic microscope glass coverslips were used to image cells in both reflection and transmission configurations. Therefore, our approach opens new avenues for ECL as a surface-confined microscopy to develop single cell assays and to image the dynamics of biological entities in cells or in membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Voci
- University of Bordeaux , Bordeaux INP, ISM, UMR CNRS 5255 , 33607 Pessac , France
| | - Bertrand Goudeau
- University of Bordeaux , Bordeaux INP, ISM, UMR CNRS 5255 , 33607 Pessac , France
| | - Giovanni Valenti
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician" , University of Bologna , Via Selmi 2 , 40126 Bologna , Italy
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratory of Physical and Analytical Electrochemistry , EPFL Valais Wallis , Rue de l'Industrie 17, CP 440 , CH-1951 Sion , Switzerland
| | - Milica Jović
- Laboratory of Physical and Analytical Electrochemistry , EPFL Valais Wallis , Rue de l'Industrie 17, CP 440 , CH-1951 Sion , Switzerland
| | - Stefania Rapino
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician" , University of Bologna , Via Selmi 2 , 40126 Bologna , Italy
| | - Francesco Paolucci
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician" , University of Bologna , Via Selmi 2 , 40126 Bologna , Italy
| | - Stéphane Arbault
- University of Bordeaux , Bordeaux INP, ISM, UMR CNRS 5255 , 33607 Pessac , France
| | - Neso Sojic
- University of Bordeaux , Bordeaux INP, ISM, UMR CNRS 5255 , 33607 Pessac , France
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5
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Neves MMPDS, Martín-Yerga D. Advanced Nanoscale Approaches to Single-(Bio)entity Sensing and Imaging. BIOSENSORS 2018; 8:E100. [PMID: 30373209 PMCID: PMC6316691 DOI: 10.3390/bios8040100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2018] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Individual (bio)chemical entities could show a very heterogeneous behaviour under the same conditions that could be relevant in many biological processes of significance in the life sciences. Conventional detection approaches are only able to detect the average response of an ensemble of entities and assume that all entities are identical. From this perspective, important information about the heterogeneities or rare (stochastic) events happening in individual entities would remain unseen. Some nanoscale tools present interesting physicochemical properties that enable the possibility to detect systems at the single-entity level, acquiring richer information than conventional methods. In this review, we introduce the foundations and the latest advances of several nanoscale approaches to sensing and imaging individual (bio)entities using nanoprobes, nanopores, nanoimpacts, nanoplasmonics and nanomachines. Several (bio)entities such as cells, proteins, nucleic acids, vesicles and viruses are specifically considered. These nanoscale approaches provide a wide and complete toolbox for the study of many biological systems at the single-entity level.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Martín-Yerga
- Department of Chemical Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 100-44 Stockholm, Sweden.
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6
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Conzuelo F, Schulte A, Schuhmann W. Biological imaging with scanning electrochemical microscopy. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci 2018; 474:20180409. [PMID: 30839832 PMCID: PMC6237495 DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2018.0409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) is a powerful and versatile technique for visualizing the local electrochemical activity of a surface as an ultramicroelectrode tip is moved towards or over a sample of interest using precise positioning systems. In comparison with other scanning probe techniques, SECM not only enables topographical surface mapping but also gathers chemical information with high spatial resolution. Considerable progress has been made in the analysis of biological samples, including living cells and immobilized biomacromolecules such as enzymes, antibodies and DNA fragments. Moreover, combinations of SECM with comple-mentary analytical tools broadened its applicability and facilitated multi-functional analysis with extended life science capabilities. The aim of this review is to present a brief topical overview on recent applications of biological SECM, with particular emphasis on important technical improvements of this surface imaging technique, recommended applications and future trends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Conzuelo
- Analytical Chemistry—Center for Electrochemical Sciences (CES), Faculty for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
| | - Albert Schulte
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Wolfgang Schuhmann
- Analytical Chemistry—Center for Electrochemical Sciences (CES), Faculty for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
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7
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Lin TE, Rapino S, Girault HH, Lesch A. Electrochemical imaging of cells and tissues. Chem Sci 2018; 9:4546-4554. [PMID: 29899947 PMCID: PMC5969511 DOI: 10.1039/c8sc01035h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
This minireview summarizes the recent achievements of electrochemical imaging platforms to map cellular functions in biological specimens using electrochemical scanning nano/micro-probe microscopy and 2D chips containing microelectrode arrays.
The technological and experimental progress in electrochemical imaging of biological specimens is discussed with a view on potential applications for skin cancer diagnostics, reproductive medicine and microbial testing. The electrochemical analysis of single cell activity inside cell cultures, 3D cellular aggregates and microtissues is based on the selective detection of electroactive species involved in biological functions. Electrochemical imaging strategies, based on nano/micrometric probes scanning over the sample and sensor array chips, respectively, can be made sensitive and selective without being affected by optical interference as many other microscopy techniques. The recent developments in microfabrication, electronics and cell culturing/tissue engineering have evolved in affordable and fast-sampling electrochemical imaging platforms. We believe that the topics discussed herein demonstrate the applicability of electrochemical imaging devices in many areas related to cellular functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Laboratory of Physical and Analytical Electrochemistry (LEPA) , École Polytechnique Fédéderale de Lausanne , EPFL Valais Valais , Rue de l'Industrie 17 , CP 440 , 1951 Sion , Switzerland .
| | - Stefania Rapino
- Chemistry Department "Giacomo Ciamician" , University of Bologna , Via Selmi 2 , 40126 Bologna , Italy
| | - Hubert H Girault
- Laboratory of Physical and Analytical Electrochemistry (LEPA) , École Polytechnique Fédéderale de Lausanne , EPFL Valais Valais , Rue de l'Industrie 17 , CP 440 , 1951 Sion , Switzerland .
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratory of Physical and Analytical Electrochemistry (LEPA) , École Polytechnique Fédéderale de Lausanne , EPFL Valais Valais , Rue de l'Industrie 17 , CP 440 , 1951 Sion , Switzerland .
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8
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Zhang J, Zhou J, Pan R, Jiang D, Burgess JD, Chen HY. New Frontiers and Challenges for Single-Cell Electrochemical Analysis. ACS Sens 2018; 3:242-250. [PMID: 29276834 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.7b00711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Previous measurements of cell populations might obscure many important cellular differences, and new strategies for single-cell analyses are urgently needed to re-examine these fundamental biological principles for better diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Electrochemistry is a robust technique for the analysis of single living cells that has the advantages of minor interruption of cellular activity and provides the capability of high spatiotemporal resolution. The achievements of the past 30 years have revealed significant information about the exocytotic events of single cells to elucidate the mechanisms of cellular activity. Currently, the rapid developments of micro/nanofabrication and optoelectronic technologies drive the development of multifunctional electrodes and novel electrochemical approaches with higher resolution for single cells. In this Perspective, three new frontiers in this field, namely, electrochemical microscopy, intracellular analysis, and single-cell analysis in a biological system (i.e., neocortex and retina), are reviewed. The unique features and remaining challenges of these techniques are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Zhang
- The
State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Junyu Zhou
- The
State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Rongrong Pan
- The
State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - Dechen Jiang
- The
State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Jiangsu 210093, China
| | - James D. Burgess
- Department
of Medical Laboratory, Imaging, and Radiologic Sciences, College of
Allied Health Sciences, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia 30912, United States
| | - Hong-Yuan Chen
- The
State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Jiangsu 210093, China
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9
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Armbrecht
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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10
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Polcari D, Dauphin-Ducharme P, Mauzeroll J. Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy: A Comprehensive Review of Experimental Parameters from 1989 to 2015. Chem Rev 2016; 116:13234-13278. [PMID: 27736057 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David Polcari
- Department
of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec Canada, H3A 0B8
| | - Philippe Dauphin-Ducharme
- Department
of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec Canada, H3A 0B8
| | - Janine Mauzeroll
- Department
of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec Canada, H3A 0B8
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11
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Holzinger A, Steinbach C, Kranz C. Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy (SECM): Fundamentals and Applications in Life Sciences. ELECTROCHEMICAL STRATEGIES IN DETECTION SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/9781782622529-00125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) has made significant contributions to the life sciences. Innovative developments focusing on high-resolution imaging, developing novel operation modes, and combining SECM with complementary optical or scanning probe techniques renders SECM an attractive analytical approach. This chapter gives an introduction to the essential instrumentation and operation principles of SECM for studying biologically-relevant systems. Particular emphasis is given to applications aimed at imaging the activity of biochemical constituents such as enzymes, antibodies, and DNA, which play a pivotal role in biomedical diagnostics. Furthermore, the unique advantages of SECM and combined techniques for studying live cells is highlighted by discussion of selected examples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika Holzinger
- Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Ulm 89069 Ulm Germany
| | - Charlotte Steinbach
- Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Ulm 89069 Ulm Germany
| | - Christine Kranz
- Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Ulm 89069 Ulm Germany
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12
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Biological cell morphology studies by scanning electrochemical microscopy imagery at constant height: Contrast enhancement using biocompatible conductive substrates. Electrochim Acta 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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13
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Salamifar SE, Lai RY. Use of combined scanning electrochemical and fluorescence microscopy for detection of reactive oxygen species in prostate cancer cells. Anal Chem 2013; 85:9417-21. [PMID: 24044675 DOI: 10.1021/ac402367f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Release of ROS from prostate cancer (PC3) cells was studied using scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and fluorescence microscopy. One-directional lateral scan SECM was used as a rapid and reproducible tool for simultaneous mapping of cell topography and reactive oxygen species (ROS) release. Fluorescence microscopy was used in tandem to monitor the tip position, in addition to providing information on intracellular ROS content via the use of ROS-reactive fluorescent dyes. A unique tip current (iT) vs lateral distance profile was observed when the tip potential (ET) was set at -0.65 V. This profile reflects the combined effects of topographical change and ROS release at the PC3 cell surfaces. Differentiation between topographical-related and ROS-induced current change was achieved by comparing the scans collected at -0.65 and -0.85 V. The effects of other parameters such as tip to cell distance, solvent oxygen content, and scan direction on the profile of the scan were systematically evaluated. Cells treated with tert-butyl hydroperoxide, a known ROS stimulus, were also evaluated using the lateral scanning approach. Overall, the SECM results correlate well with the fluorescence results. The extracellular ROS level detected at the SECM tip was found to be similar to the intracellular ROS level monitored using fluorescence microscopy. While the concentration of each contributing ROS species has not been determined and is thus part of the future study, here we have successfully demonstrated the use of a simple two-potential lateral scan approach for analysis of ROS released by living cells under real physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ehsan Salamifar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln , Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, United States
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14
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Thakar R, Weber AE, Morris CA, Baker LA. Multifunctional carbon nanoelectrodes fabricated by focused ion beam milling. Analyst 2013; 138:5973-82. [PMID: 23942511 DOI: 10.1039/c3an01216f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
We report a strategy for fabrication of sub-micron, multifunctional carbon electrodes and application of these electrodes as probes for scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM). The fabrication process utilized chemical vapor deposition of parylene, followed by thermal pyrolysis to form conductive carbon and then further deposition of parylene to form an insulation layer. To achieve well-defined electrode geometries, two methods of electrode exposure were utilized. In the first method, carbon probes were masked in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to obtain a cone-shaped electrode. In the second method, the electrode area was exposed via milling with a focused ion beam (FIB) to reveal a carbon ring electrode, carbon ring/platinum disk electrode, or carbon ring/nanopore electrode. Carbon electrodes were batch fabricated (~35/batch) through the vapor deposition process and were characterized with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), and cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements. Additionally, Raman spectroscopy was utilized to examine the effects of Ga(+) ion implantation, a result of FIB milling. Constant-height, feedback mode SECM was performed with conical carbon electrodes and carbon ring electrodes. We demonstrate the utility of carbon ring/nanopore electrodes with SECM-SICM to simultaneously collect topography, ion current and electrochemical current images. In addition, carbon ring/nanopore electrodes were utilized in substrate generation/tip collection (SG/TC) SECM. In SG/TC SECM, localized delivery of redox molecules affords a higher resolution, than when the redox molecules are present in the bath solution. Multifunctional geometries of carbon electrode probes will find utility in electroanalytical applications, in general, and more specifically with electrochemical microscopy as discussed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Thakar
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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15
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Trouillon R, Passarelli MK, Wang J, Kurczy ME, Ewing AG. Chemical Analysis of Single Cells. Anal Chem 2012; 85:522-42. [DOI: 10.1021/ac303290s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Trouillon
- University of Gothenburg, Department of Chemistry and Molecular
Biology, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Melissa K. Passarelli
- University of Gothenburg, Department of Chemistry and Molecular
Biology, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jun Wang
- University of Gothenburg, Department of Chemistry and Molecular
Biology, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Michael E. Kurczy
- Chalmers University, Department of Chemistry
and Biological Engineering, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Andrew G. Ewing
- University of Gothenburg, Department of Chemistry and Molecular
Biology, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
- Chalmers University, Department of Chemistry
and Biological Engineering, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
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