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Parolo C, Idili A, Heikenfeld J, Plaxco KW. Conformational-switch biosensors as novel tools to support continuous, real-time molecular monitoring in lab-on-a-chip devices. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:1339-1348. [PMID: 36655710 PMCID: PMC10799767 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00716a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have seen continued expansion of the functionality of lab on a chip (LOC) devices. Indeed LOCs now provide scientists and developers with useful and versatile platforms across a myriad of chemical and biological applications. The field still fails, however, to integrate an often important element of bench-top analytics: real-time molecular measurements that can be used to "guide" a chemical response. Here we describe the analytical techniques that could provide LOCs with such real-time molecular monitoring capabilities. It appears to us that, among the approaches that are general (i.e., that are independent of the reactive or optical properties of their targets), sensing strategies relying on binding-induced conformational change of bioreceptors are most likely to succeed in such applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Parolo
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Hospital Clínic Universitat de Barcelona, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andrea Idili
- Department of Chemical Science and Technologies, University of Rome, Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Novel Devices Laboratory, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, USA.
- Interdepartmental Program in Biomolecular Science and Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, USA
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2
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Pujol-Vila F, Escudero P, Güell-Grau P, Pascual-Izarra C, Villa R, Alvarez M. Direct Color Observation of Light-Driven Molecular Conformation-Induced Stress. SMALL METHODS 2022; 6:e2101283. [PMID: 35174993 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202101283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Although usually complex to handle, nanomechanical sensors are exceptional, label-free tools for monitoring molecular conformational changes, which makes them of paramount importance in understanding biomolecular interactions. Herein, a simple and inexpensive mechanical imaging approach based on low-stiffness cantilevers with structural coloration (mechanochromic cantilevers (MMC)) is demonstrated, able to monitor and quantify molecular conformational changes with similar sensitivity to the classical optical beam detection method of cantilever-based sensors (≈4.6 × 10-3 N m-1 ). This high sensitivity is achieved by using a white light and an RGB camera working in the reflection configuration. The sensor performance is demonstrated by monitoring the UV-light induced reversible conformational changes of azobenzene molecules coating. The trans-cis isomerization of the azobenzene molecules induces a deflection of the cantilevers modifying their diffracted color, which returns to the initial state by cis-trans relaxation. Interestingly, the mechanical imaging enables a simultaneous 2D mapping of the response thus enhancing the spatial resolution of the measurements. A tight correlation is found between the color output and the cantilever's deflection and curvature angle (sensitivities of 5 × 10-3 Hue µm-1 and 1.5 × 10-1 Hue (°)-1 ). These findings highlight the suitability of low-stiffness MMC as an enabling technology for monitoring molecular changes with unprecedented simplicity, high-throughput capability, and functionalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferran Pujol-Vila
- Instituto de Microelectrónica de Barcelona (IMB-CNM, CSIC), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Pedro Escudero
- Instituto de Microelectrónica de Barcelona (IMB-CNM, CSIC), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Facultad de Ingeniería y Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Ambato, 180103, Ecuador
| | - Pau Güell-Grau
- Instituto de Microelectrónica de Barcelona (IMB-CNM, CSIC), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | | | - Rosa Villa
- Instituto de Microelectrónica de Barcelona (IMB-CNM, CSIC), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Networking Research Centre on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 50018, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mar Alvarez
- Instituto de Microelectrónica de Barcelona (IMB-CNM, CSIC), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Networking Research Centre on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 50018, Madrid, Spain
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Dionne ER, Dip C, Toader V, Badia A. Micromechanical Redox Actuation by Self-Assembled Monolayers of Ferrocenylalkanethiolates: Evens Push More Than Odds. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:10063-10066. [PMID: 30070479 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b04054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Microcantilever transducers can be valuable tools for the investigation of physicochemical processes in organized molecular films. Gold-coated cantilevers are used here to investigate the electrochemomechanics of redox-active self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of ferrocenylalkanethiolates (Fc(CH2) nS) of different alkyl chain lengths. A significant odd-even effect is observed in the surface stress and cantilever movement generated by the oxidation of the SAM-confined ferrocenes as the number of methylene units n in the SAM backbone is varied. We demonstrate that stronger alkyl chain-chain interactions are at the origin of the larger surface stresses generated by SAMs with an even versus odd n. The findings highlight the impact of subtle structural effects and weak van der Waals interactions on the mechanical actuation produced by redox reactions in self-assembled systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric R Dionne
- Département de chimie , Université de Montréal , C.P. 6128, succursale Centre-ville , Montréal , QC H3C 3J7 , Canada.,Quebec Center for Advanced Materials , FRQNT , Canada
| | - Christopher Dip
- Département de chimie , Université de Montréal , C.P. 6128, succursale Centre-ville , Montréal , QC H3C 3J7 , Canada.,Quebec Center for Advanced Materials , FRQNT , Canada
| | - Violeta Toader
- Department of Chemistry , McGill University , 801 rue Sherbrooke Ouest , Montréal , QC H3A 2K6 , Canada.,Quebec Center for Advanced Materials , FRQNT , Canada
| | - Antonella Badia
- Département de chimie , Université de Montréal , C.P. 6128, succursale Centre-ville , Montréal , QC H3C 3J7 , Canada.,Quebec Center for Advanced Materials , FRQNT , Canada
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Mathew R, Ravi Sankar A. A Review on Surface Stress-Based Miniaturized Piezoresistive SU-8 Polymeric Cantilever Sensors. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2018; 10:35. [PMID: 30393684 PMCID: PMC6199092 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-018-0189-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In the last decade, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) SU-8 polymeric cantilevers with piezoresistive readout combined with the advances in molecular recognition techniques have found versatile applications, especially in the field of chemical and biological sensing. Compared to conventional solid-state semiconductor-based piezoresistive cantilever sensors, SU-8 polymeric cantilevers have advantages in terms of better sensitivity along with reduced material and fabrication cost. In recent times, numerous researchers have investigated their potential as a sensing platform due to high performance-to-cost ratio of SU-8 polymer-based cantilever sensors. In this article, we critically review the design, fabrication, and performance aspects of surface stress-based piezoresistive SU-8 polymeric cantilever sensors. The evolution of surface stress-based piezoresistive cantilever sensors from solid-state semiconductor materials to polymers, especially SU-8 polymer, is discussed in detail. Theoretical principles of surface stress generation and their application in cantilever sensing technology are also devised. Variants of SU-8 polymeric cantilevers with different composition of materials in cantilever stacks are explained. Furthermore, the interdependence of the material selection, geometrical design parameters, and fabrication process of piezoresistive SU-8 polymeric cantilever sensors and their cumulative impact on the sensor response are also explained in detail. In addition to the design-, fabrication-, and performance-related factors, this article also describes various challenges in engineering SU-8 polymeric cantilevers as a universal sensing platform such as temperature and moisture vulnerability. This review article would serve as a guideline for researchers to understand specifics and functionality of surface stress-based piezoresistive SU-8 cantilever sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ribu Mathew
- School of Electronics Engineering (SENSE), Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT) Chennai, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600127 India
| | - A. Ravi Sankar
- School of Electronics Engineering (SENSE), Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT) Chennai, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600127 India
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Xu X, Zhang N, Brown GM, Thundat TG, Ji HF. Ultrasensitive Detection of Cu2+ Using a Microcantilever Sensor Modified with L-Cysteine Self-Assembled Monolayer. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2017; 183:555-565. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-017-2511-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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6
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Arroyo-Hernández M, Svec M, Rogero C, Briones C, Martín-Gago JA, Costa-Krämer JL. Structural modifications of gold thin films produced by thiol-derivatized single-stranded DNA immobilization. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2014; 26:055010. [PMID: 24440831 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/26/5/055010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Recent experiments have reported an opposite sign of the differential surface stress produced on gold-coated cantilevers by a thiol-derivatized single-stranded DNA (SH-DNA) immobilization process. The sign of the surface stress depends on the method used to evaporate the gold thin film, being compressive (negative) or tensile (positive) for e-beam or resistively deposited gold, respectively. This study investigates the origin of this effect by means of a combination of x-ray diffraction and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Both e-beam and resistively grown gold thin films are characterized to find the subtle differences responsible for this intriguing stress behaviour. Somewhat remarkably, these studies show a tight relation between the surface structure of the gold overlayer and the SH-DNA immobilization efficiency. The average grain size variation seems to correlate well with the differential surface stress triggered by the SH-DNA immobilization previously reported. These results suggest that the relation of the probe molecules with the surface structure must be considered to understand surface stress changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Arroyo-Hernández
- IMM-Instituto de Microelectrónica de Madrid (CNM-CSIC), Isaac Newton 8, PTM, E-28760 Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
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Dionne ER, Toader V, Badia A. Microcantilevers bend to the pressure of clustered redox centers. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:742-752. [PMID: 24397740 DOI: 10.1021/la403551c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The redox-activated deflection of microcantilevers has attracted interest for nanoactuation and chemical sensing. Microcantilever sensors are devices that transduce (bio)chemical reactions into a quantifiable nanomechanical motion via surface stress changes. Despite promising applications in analytical science, poor signal-to-noise ratios and a limited understanding of the molecular origins of the surface stress changes that cause the observed deflections remain obstacles to cantilever-based sensing becoming an established (bio)detection method, such as surface plasmon resonance and electrochemistry. We use phase-separated, binary self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of ferrocenyldodecanethiolate and n-undecanethiolate as a model system to study the effect of the steric crowding of the redox centers on the surface stress change and cantilever deflection produced by the electrochemical oxidation of the surface-tethered ferrocene to ferrocenium. We correlate the measured surface stress change to the fraction of the clustered ferrocenyldodecanethiolate phase in the binary SAMs. The pairing of anions with the sterically crowded clustered ferroceniums induces a collective molecular reorientation which drives the cantilever deflection. The results provide fundamental insights into the response mechanism of microcantilever-based actuating and sensing technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric R Dionne
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Self-Assembled Chemical Structures of the Fonds de recherche du Québec - Nature et technologies, Université de Montréal , C.P. 6128 succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC H3C 3J7, Canada
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8
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Recent Advances in DNA Microarray Technology: an Overview on Production Strategies and Detection Methods. BIONANOSCIENCE 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s12668-013-0111-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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9
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Wu S, Nan T, Xue C, Cheng T, Liu H, Wang B, Zhang Q, Wu X. Mechanism and enhancement of the surface stress caused by a small-molecule antigen and antibody binding. Biosens Bioelectron 2013; 48:67-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.03.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Revised: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/30/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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10
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Sang S, Zhao Y, Zhang W, Li P, Hu J, Li G. Surface stress-based biosensors. Biosens Bioelectron 2013; 51:124-35. [PMID: 23948243 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Surface stress-based biosensors, as one kind of label-free biosensors, have attracted lots of attention in the process of information gathering and measurement for the biological, chemical and medical application with the development of technology and society. This kind of biosensors offers many advantages such as short response time (less than milliseconds) and a typical sensitivity at nanogram, picoliter, femtojoule and attomolar level. Furthermore, it simplifies sample preparation and testing procedures. In this work, progress made towards the use of surface stress-based biosensors for achieving better performance is critically reviewed, including our recent achievement, the optimally circular membrane-based biosensors and biosensor array. The further scientific and technological challenges in this field are also summarized. Critical remark and future steps towards the ultimate surface stress-based biosensors are addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengbo Sang
- MicroNano System Research Center, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030024, People's Republic of China; Key Lab of Advanced Transducers and Intelligent Control System of the Ministry of Education, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030024, People's Republic of China
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11
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Yin TI, Zhao Y, Horak J, Bakirci H, Liao HH, Tsai HH, Juang YZ, Urban G. A micro-cantilever sensor chip based on contact angle analysis for a label-free troponin I immunoassay. LAB ON A CHIP 2013; 13:834-842. [PMID: 23282576 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc40767a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Cantilever sensors have been extensively explored as a promising technique for real-time and label-free analyses in biological systems. A major sensing principle utilized by state-of-the-art cantilever sensors is based on analyte-induced surface stress changes, which result in static bending of a cantilever. The sensor performance, however, suffers from the intrinsically small change in surface stress induced by analytes, especially for molecular recognition such as antigen-antibody binding. Through the contact angle change on a tailored solid surface, it is possible to convert a tiny surface stress into a capillary force-a much larger physical quantity needed for a practical sensor application. In this work, a micro-cantilever sensor based on contact angle analysis (CAMCS) was proposed to effectively enhance the sensitivity of a sensor in proportion to the square of the length to thickness ratio of the cantilever structure. CAMCS chips were fabricated using a standard complementary-metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) process to demonstrate a 1250-fold enhancement in the sensitivity of surface stress to bioanalyte adsorption using a piezoresistive sensing method. A real-time and label-free troponin I (cTnI) immunoassay, which is now widely used in clinics and considered a gold standard for the early diagnosis and prognosis of cardiovascular disease, was performed to demonstrate cTnI detection levels as low as 1 pg mL(-1). The short detection time of this assay was within several minutes, which matches the detection time of commercially available instruments that are based on fluorescence-labeling techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsung-I Yin
- Department for Microsystems Engineering (IMTEK), University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany.
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Huang X, Li M, Xu X, Chen H, Ji HF, Zhu S. Microcantilevers modified by specific peptide for selective detection of trimethylamine. Biosens Bioelectron 2011; 30:140-4. [PMID: 22000756 PMCID: PMC3214668 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2011.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2011] [Revised: 09/01/2011] [Accepted: 09/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
We report a biosensor based on a microcantilever that is modified by a specific peptide for highly selective detection of trimethylamine (TMA). The assay is based on binding-induced bending of the peptide functionalized microcantilevers. The sensor is selectively responsive to TMA. The amplitude of microcantilever bending at equilibrium is a function of the concentration of TMA with a dynamic range from 8 ppm to 800 ppm. The detection limit is approximately 8 ppm. There is a good intra-sensor and an acceptable inter-sensor reproducibility as evidenced by the standard deviation of 5% and 15%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Huang
- Institute of Animal and Plant Quarantine, Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, 100029, People‘s Republic of China
| | - Mingfu Li
- Institute of Animal and Plant Quarantine, Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, 100029, People‘s Republic of China
| | - Xiaohe Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Hongjun Chen
- Institute of Animal and Plant Quarantine, Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, 100029, People‘s Republic of China
| | - Hai-Feng Ji
- Department of Chemistry, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Shuifang Zhu
- Institute of Animal and Plant Quarantine, Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, 100029, People‘s Republic of China
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Shokuhfar A, Heydari P, Ebrahimi-Nejad S. Electrostatic excitation for the force amplification of microcantilever sensors. SENSORS 2011; 11:10129-42. [PMID: 22346633 PMCID: PMC3274275 DOI: 10.3390/s111110129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2011] [Revised: 10/17/2011] [Accepted: 10/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes an electrostatic excited microcantilever sensor operating in static mode that is more sensitive than traditional microcantilevers. The proposed sensor comprises a simple microcantilever with electrostatic excitation ability and an optical or piezoresistive detector. Initially the microcantilever is excited by electrostatic force to near pull-in voltage. The nonlinear behavior of the microcantilever in near pull-in voltage i.e., the inverse-square relation between displacement and electrostatic force provides a novel method for force amplification. In this situation, any external load applied to the sensor will be amplified by electrostatic force leading to more displacement. We prove that the proposed microcantilever sensor can be 2 to 100 orders more sensitive compared with traditional microcantilevers sensors of the same dimensions. The results for surface stress and the free-end point force load are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Shokuhfar
- Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology Research Lab, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, K.N.Toosi University of Technology, Tehran 19991-43344, Iran.
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Buchapudi KR, Huang X, Yang X, Ji HF, Thundat T. Microcantilever biosensors for chemicals and bioorganisms. Analyst 2011; 136:1539-56. [PMID: 21394347 DOI: 10.1039/c0an01007c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
In the last fifteen years, microcantilevers (MCLs) have been emerging as a sensitive tool for the detection of chemicals and bioorganisms. Because of their small size, lightweight, and high surface-to-volume ratio, MCL-based sensors improve our capability to detect and identify biological agents by orders of magnitude. A biosensor is a device for the detection of an analyte that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector component. The MCL biosensors have recently been reviewed in several papers. All of these papers were organized based on the sensing biological elements (antibody, enzyme, proteins, etc.) for recognition of analytes. In this review, we intend to summarize the microcantilever biosensors in a format of each specific chemical and bioorganism species to make information on individual biosensors easily accessible. We did this to aid researchers to locate relevant references.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koutilya R Buchapudi
- Institute for Micromanufacturing, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA
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15
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Yang T, Li X, Chen Y, Lee DW, Zuo G. Adsorption induced surface-stress sensing signal originating from both vertical interface effects and intermolecular lateral interactions. Analyst 2011; 136:5261-9. [DOI: 10.1039/c1an15695k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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16
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Kelby TS, Huck WTS. Controlled Bending of Microscale Au−Polyelectrolyte Brush Bilayers. Macromolecules 2010. [DOI: 10.1021/ma100624h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tim S. Kelby
- Melville Laboratory for Polymer Synthesis, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
| | - Wilhelm T. S. Huck
- Melville Laboratory for Polymer Synthesis, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Institute for Molecules and Materials, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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