High-Temporal-Resolution smFISH Method for Gene Expression Studies in Caenorhabditis elegans Embryos

Analysis of developmental gene expression using smFISH and in silico staging of C. elegans embryos

Regulation of transcription during embryogenesis is key to development and differentiation. To study transcript expression throughout Caenorhabditis elegans embryogenesis at single-molecule resolution, we developed a high-throughput single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) method that relies on computational methods to developmentally stage embryos and quantify individual mRNA molecules in single embryos. We applied our system to sdc-2, a zygotically transcribed gene essential for hermaphrodite development and dosage compensation. We found that sdc-2 is rapidly activated during early embryogenesis by increasing both the number of mRNAs produced per transcription site and the frequency of sites engaged in transcription. Knockdown of sdc-2 and dpy-27, a subunit of the dosage compensation complex (DCC), increased the number of active transcription sites for the X chromosomal gene dpy-23 but not the autosomal gene mdh-1, suggesting that the DCC reduces the frequency of dpy-23 transcription. The temporal resolution from in silico staging of embryos showed that the deletion of a single DCC recruitment element near the dpy-23 gene causes higher dpy-23 mRNA expression after the start of dosage compensation, which could not be resolved using mRNAseq from mixed-stage embryos. In summary, we have established a computational approach to quantify temporal regulation of transcription throughout C. elegans embryogenesis and demonstrated its potential to provide new insights into developmental gene regulation.

Diversification of small RNA pathways underlies germline RNA interference incompetence in wild Caenorhabditis elegans strains

The discovery that experimental delivery of dsRNA can induce gene silencing at target genes revolutionized genetics research, by both uncovering essential biological processes and creating new tools for developmental geneticists. However, the efficacy of exogenous RNA interference (RNAi) varies dramatically within the Caenorhabditis elegans natural population, raising questions about our understanding of RNAi in the lab relative to its activity and significance in nature. Here, we investigate why some wild strains fail to mount a robust RNAi response to germline targets. We observe diversity in mechanism: in some strains, the response is stochastic, either on or off among individuals, while in others, the response is consistent but delayed. Increased activity of the Argonaute PPW-1, which is required for germline RNAi in the laboratory strain N2, rescues the response in some strains but dampens it further in others. Among wild strains, genes known to mediate RNAi exhibited very high expression variation relative to other genes in the genome as well as allelic divergence and strain-specific instances of pseudogenization at the sequence level. Our results demonstrate functional diversification in the small RNA pathways in C. elegans and suggest that RNAi processes are evolving rapidly and dynamically in nature.

An integrated microfluidic device for multiplexed imaging of spatial gene expression patterns of Drosophila embryos

To reveal the underlying mechanism of the biological function of multicellular systems, it is important to obtain comprehensive spatial gene expression profiles. Among the emerging single-cell spatial-omics techniques, immunofluorescence (IF)-based iterative multiplexed imaging is a promising approach. However, the conventional method is usually costly, time-consuming, labor-intensive, and has low throughput. Moreover, it has yet to be demonstrated in intact multicellular organisms. Here, we developed an integrated microfluidic system to overcome these challenges for quantitatively measuring multiple protein profiles sequentially in situ in the same Drosophila embryo. We designed an array of hydrodynamic trapping sites to automatically capture over ten Drosophila embryos with orientation selectivity at more than 90% trapping rates. We also optimized the geometry of confinement and the on-chip IF protocol to achieve the same high signal-to-noise ratio as the off-chip traditional IF experiments. Moreover, we developed an efficient de-staining protocol by combining on-chip antibody stripping and fluorophore bleaching. Using the same secondary antibody to sequentially stain different genes, we confirmed that the de-stained genes have no detectable interference with the subsequently stained genes, and the gene expression profiles are preserved after multiple cycles of staining and de-staining processes. This preliminary test shows that our newly developed integrated microfluidic system can be a powerful tool for multiplexed imaging of Drosophila embryos. Our work opens a new avenue to design microfluidic chips for multicellular organisms and single-cell spatial-omics techniques.

A high-throughput microplate toxicity screening platform based on Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), an established model organism, has been widely used in environmental toxicology research. However, most of the current toxicity testing methods based on worms are time-consuming. In this study we aimed to develop an automated and highly-integrated platform for high-throughput and in situ toxicity testing. Considering the superiority of C. elegans as a neurotoxicological model, this platform mainly evaluates general toxicology and neurotoxicology endpoints, which are usually induced by metals and pesticides, the major environmental contaminants. Microplates were used as a worm culturing system, which have good compatibility with any commercial microplate applicable instruments. We developed a microfluidic-based module for worm dispensing, and an image acquisition/analysis module for monitoring worms and detecting toxicity endpoints in bright filed. These were collectively incorporated with a commercial pipetting workstation for automated food/drug delivery and a high-content analysis system for fluorescence detection. The integrated platform achieved an efficient on-demand worm dispensing, long-term maintenance, regular monitoring and imaging, survival assay and behavioral analyses, and visualized gene reporter assay. Moreover, "Lab on Web" was achieved by connecting the platform to the web for remote operation, worm monitoring, and phenotype calculation. To demonstrate the ability of the platform for automated toxicity testing assays; worms were treated with cadmium and longevity, neurotoxicity, developmental toxicity and gst-4 expression were evaluated. We determined its feasibility and proposed the potential application in high-throughput toxicity screening for environmental risk assessment in the nearest future.

Single-molecule FISH in C. elegans embryos reveals early embryonic expression dynamics of par-2 , lgl-1 and chin-1 and possible differences between hyper-diverged strains

Wild C. elegans strains harbor natural variation in developmental pathways, but investigating these differences requires precise and well-powered phenotyping methods. Here we employ a microfluidics platform for single-molecule FISH to simultaneously visualize the transcripts of three genes in embryos of two distinct strains. We capture transcripts at high resolution by developmental stage in over one hundred embryos of each strain and observe wide-scale conservation of expression, but subtle differences in par-2 and chin-1 abundance and rate of change. As both genes reside in a genomic interval of hyper-divergence, these results may reflect consequences of pathway evolution over long timescales.

Microfluidics for understanding model organisms

New microfluidic systems for whole organism analysis and experimentation are catalyzing biological breakthroughs across many fields, from human health to fundamental biology principles. This perspective discusses recent microfluidic tools to study intact model organisms to demonstrate the tremendous potential for these integrated approaches now and into the future. We describe these microsystems' technical features and highlight the unique advantages for precise manipulation in areas including immobilization, automated alignment, sorting, sensory, mechanical and chemical stimulation, and genetic and thermal perturbation. Our aim is to familiarize technologically focused researchers with microfluidics applications in biology research, while providing biologists an entrée to advanced microengineering techniques for model organisms.

Building small-scale tools for biology research eliminates the need for time-consuming methods and enables novel experimental paradigms. Here, the authors discuss microfluidics' potential for manipulating or stimulating model organisms and identify barriers to making these tools accessible.

Self-Assembled Growing DNA Tree Mediated by Exosomes for Amplified Imaging of Messenger RNA in Living Cells

Sensitive, accurate, and nondestructive probing of endogenous messenger RNA (mRNA) in living cells places extremely high demands on nanocarriers and probes and is still a challenge. In the present study, we describe a target-triggered self-assembled DNA tree for amplified analysis of mRNA in intact living cells. The probes assembled into a DNA tree are transported into cells by exosomes, which is beneficial for reducing cell damage and realizing nondestructive analysis. The probes are l-configured single-stranded DNAs (LDNAs) that can resist the degradation of exonuclease and endonuclease, thus laying the foundation for accurate analysis. Under the induction of the target mRNA, the probes in the cells assemble into a small plantlet and eventually grow into a tree after a few rounds of self-cycling, achieving the exponential amplification of fluorescence signals. Compared with the signal amplification based on one-dimensional DNA trunk self-assembly, the three-dimensional DNA tree shows an excellent sensitivity both ex situ and in situ. In this way, favorable sensitivity, accuracy, and nondestructive analysis are integrated into one system. This DNA tree expands the analysis platform for analyzing more biomarkers on a genetic level in an intracellular, nondestructive, and hypersensitive manner and holds great potential in clinical diagnostic and research applications.