1
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Gray B, Lubbock K, Love C, Ryder E, Hudson S, Scarth J. Analytical advances in horseracing medication and doping control from 2018 to 2023. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 39010718 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
The analytical approaches taken by laboratories to implement robust and efficient regulation of horseracing medication and doping control are complex and constantly evolving. Each laboratory's approach will be dictated by differences in regulatory, economic and scientific drivers specific to their local environment. However, in general, laboratories will all be undertaking developments and improvements to their screening strategies in order to meet new and emerging threats as well as provide improved service to their customers. In this paper, the published analytical advances in horseracing medication and doping control since the 22nd International Conference of Racing Analysts and Veterinarians will be reviewed. Due to the unprecedented impact of COVID-19 on the worldwide economy, the normal 2-year period of this review was extended to over 5 years. As such, there was considerable ground to cover, resulting in an increase in the number of relevant publications included from 107 to 307. Major trends in publications will be summarised and possible future directions highlighted. This will cover developments in the detection of 'small' and 'large' molecule drugs, sample preparation procedures and the use of alternative matrices, instrumental advances/applications, drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics, the detection and prevalence of 'endogenous' compounds and biomarker and OMICs approaches. Particular emphasis will be given to research into the potential threat of gene doping, which is a significant area of new and continued research for many laboratories. Furthermore, developments in analytical instrumentation relevant to equine medication and doping control will be discussed.
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2
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Furukawa R, Tozaki T, Kikuchi M, Ishige T, Takahashi Y, Fukui E, Kakoi H. A method for detecting gene doping in horse sports without DNA extraction. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38853330 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Gene doping is prohibited in horse sports and can involve the administration of exogenous genes, called transgenes, to postnatal animals. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) methods have been developed to detect gene doping; however, these generally require DNA extraction from the plasma prior to qPCR. In this study, we developed two methods, direct droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) and nested ddPCR, to detect the equine erythropoietin (EPO) transgene without DNA extraction. Direct ddPCR used pretreated plasma and PCR to detect the EPO transgene spiked at 10 copies/μL. Nested ddPCR utilised pre-amplification using nontreated plasma, purification of PCR products and PCR to detect the EPO transgene spiked at 1 copy/μL in plasma. These methods successfully detected the EPO transgene after intramuscular injection into horses. Since each method has different detection sensitivity, the combined use of direct ddPCR for screening and nested ddPCR for confirmation may complement each other and prevent the occurrence of false positives, allowing the reliable detection of gene-doped substances. One advantage of these methods is the small amount of sample required, approximately 2.2-5.0 μl, owing to the lack of a DNA extraction step. Therefore, these tests could be applied to small volume samples as an alternative to conventional gene doping tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Risako Furukawa
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Teruaki Tozaki
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Mio Kikuchi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Taichiro Ishige
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Yuji Takahashi
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Emiko Fukui
- School of Agriculture, Utsunomiya University, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Hironaga Kakoi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
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3
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Li R, Su P, Shi Y, Shi H, Ding S, Su X, Chen P, Wu D. Gene doping detection in the era of genomics. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38403949 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Recent progress in gene editing has enabled development of gene therapies for many genetic diseases, but also made gene doping an emerging risk in sports and competitions. By delivery of exogenous transgenes into human body, gene doping not only challenges competition fairness but also places health risk on athletes. World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has clearly inhibited the use of gene and cell doping in sports, and many techniques have been developed for gene doping detection. In this review, we will summarize the main tools for gene doping detection at present, highlight the main challenges for current tools, and elaborate future utilizations of high-throughput sequencing for unbiased, sensitive, economic and large-scale gene doping detections. Quantitative real-time PCR assays are the widely used detection methods at present, which are useful for detection of known targets but are vulnerable to codon optimization at exon-exon junction sites of the transgenes. High-throughput sequencing has become a powerful tool for various applications in life and health research, and the era of genomics has made it possible for sensitive and large-scale gene doping detections. Non-biased genomic profiling could efficiently detect new doping targets, and low-input genomics amplification and long-read third-generation sequencing also have application potentials for more efficient and straightforward gene doping detection. By closely monitoring scientific advancements in gene editing and sport genetics, high-throughput sequencing could play a more and more important role in gene detection and hopefully contribute to doping-free sports in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruihong Li
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Center of Agri-Products Quality and Safety, Shanghai, China
| | - Peipei Su
- Innovative Program of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Shi
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hui Shi
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shengqian Ding
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Xianbin Su
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Center for Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Peijie Chen
- School of Exercise and Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Die Wu
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
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4
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Zang P, Xu Q, Li C, Tao M, Zhang Z, Li J, Zhang W, Li S, Li C, Yang Q, Guo Z, Yao J, Zhou L. Self-correction of cycle threshold values by a normal distribution-based process to improve accuracy of quantification in real-time digital PCR. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024:10.1007/s00216-024-05208-w. [PMID: 38400940 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-024-05208-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
The digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR) is a new and developing nucleic acid detection technology with high sensitivity that can realize the absolute quantitative analysis of samples. In order to improve the accuracy of quantitative results, real-time digital PCR emphasizes the kinetic information during amplification to identify prominent abnormal data. However, it is challenging to use a unified standard to accurately classify the amplification curve of each well as negative and positive, due to the interference caused by various factors in the experiment. In this work, a normal distribution-based cycle threshold value self-correcting model (NCSM) was established, which focused on the feature of the cycle threshold values in amplification curves and conducted continuous detection and correction on the whole. The cycle threshold value distribution was closer to the ideal normal distribution to avoid the influence of interference. Thus, the model achieves a more accurate classification between positive and negative results. The corrective process was applied to plasmid samples and resulted in an accuracy improvement from 92 to 99%. The coefficient of variation was below 5% when considering the quantitation of a range between 100 and 10,000 copies. At the same time, by utilizing this model, the distribution of cycle threshold values at the endpoint can be predicted with fewer thermal cycles, which can reduce the cycling time by around 25% while maintaining a consistency of more than 98%. Therefore, using the NCSM can effectively enhance the quantitative accuracy and increase the detection efficiency based on the real-time dPCR platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peilin Zang
- School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Qi Xu
- School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Chuanyu Li
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Mingli Tao
- School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Zhiqi Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
- Suzhou CASENS Co., Ltd, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Jinze Li
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
- Suzhou CASENS Co., Ltd, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Shuli Li
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Chao Li
- School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Qi Yang
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Zhen Guo
- School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China.
| | - Jia Yao
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China.
| | - Lianqun Zhou
- School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China.
- Suzhou CASENS Co., Ltd, Suzhou, 215163, China.
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Lu Y, Yan J, Ou G, Fu L. A Review of Recent Progress in Drug Doping and Gene Doping Control Analysis. Molecules 2023; 28:5483. [PMID: 37513354 PMCID: PMC10386588 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28145483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The illicit utilization of performance-enhancing substances, commonly referred to as doping, not only infringes upon the principles of fair competition within athletic pursuits but also poses significant health hazards to athletes. Doping control analysis has emerged as a conventional approach to ensuring equity and integrity in sports. Over the past few decades, extensive advancements have been made in doping control analysis methods, catering to the escalating need for qualitative and quantitative analysis of numerous banned substances exhibiting diverse chemical and biological characteristics. Progress in science, technology, and instrumentation has facilitated the proliferation of varied techniques for detecting doping. In this comprehensive review, we present a succinct overview of recent research developments within the last ten years pertaining to these doping detection methodologies. We undertake a comparative analysis, evaluating the merits and limitations of each technique, and offer insights into the prospective future advancements in doping detection methods. It is noteworthy that the continual design and synthesis of novel synthetic doping agents have compelled researchers to constantly refine and innovate doping detection methods in order to address the ever-expanding range of covertly employed doping agents. Overall, we remain in a passive position for doping detection and are always on the road to doping control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuze Lu
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, School of Physical Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Jiayu Yan
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, School of Physical Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Gaozhi Ou
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, School of Physical Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Li Fu
- Key Laboratory of Novel Materials for Sensor of Zhejiang Province, College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, China
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TOZAKI T, OHNUMA A, KIKUCHI M, ISHIGE T, KAKOI H, HIROTA KI, TAKAHASHI Y, NAGATA SI. Investigation of optimal procedures for storage and use of plasma samples suitable for gene doping tests. J Equine Sci 2023; 34:21-27. [PMID: 37405066 PMCID: PMC10315635 DOI: 10.1294/jes.34.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene doping, which is prohibited in horseracing and equestrian sports, can be performed by introducing exogenous genes, known as transgenes, into the bodies of postnatal animals. To detect exogenous genes, a method utilizing quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) with a hydrolysis probe was developed to test whole blood and plasma samples, thereby protecting the fairness of competition and the rights of stakeholders in horseracing and equestrian sports. Therefore, we aimed to develop sample storage methods suitable for A and B samples in gene doping tests using blood. For sample A, sufficient qPCR detection was demonstrated after refrigeration for 1 to 2 weeks post collection. For sample B, the following procedures were confirmed to be suitable for storage: 1) centrifugation after sample receipt, 2) frozen storage, 3) natural thawing at room temperature, and 4) centrifugation without mixing blood cell components. Our results indicated that long-term cryopreservation yielded good plasma components from frozen blood samples even though it destroyed blood cells, indicating its applicability to the gene doping test using sample B, which can be stored for later use. Sample storage procedures are as important as detection methods in doping tests. Therefore, the series of procedures that we evaluated in this study will contribute to the efficient performance of gene doping tests through qPCR using blood samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teruaki TOZAKI
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of
Racing Chemistry, Tochigi 320-0851, Japan
| | - Aoi OHNUMA
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of
Racing Chemistry, Tochigi 320-0851, Japan
| | - Mio KIKUCHI
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of
Racing Chemistry, Tochigi 320-0851, Japan
| | - Taichiro ISHIGE
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of
Racing Chemistry, Tochigi 320-0851, Japan
| | - Hironaga KAKOI
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of
Racing Chemistry, Tochigi 320-0851, Japan
| | - Kei-ichi HIROTA
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of
Racing Chemistry, Tochigi 320-0851, Japan
| | - Yuji TAKAHASHI
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing
Association, Tochigi 329-0412, Japan
| | - Shun-ichi NAGATA
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of
Racing Chemistry, Tochigi 320-0851, Japan
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7
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Haughan J, Ortved KF, Robinson MA. Administration and detection of gene therapy in horses: A systematic review. Drug Test Anal 2023; 15:143-162. [PMID: 36269665 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Gene therapy uses genetic modification of cells to produce a therapeutic effect. Defective or missing genes can be repaired or replaced, or gene expression can be modified using a variety of technologies. Repair of defective genes can be achieved using specialized gene editing tools. Gene addition promotes gene expression by introducing synthetic copies of genes of interest (transgenes) into cells where they are transcribed and translated into therapeutic proteins. Protein production can also be modified using therapies that regulate gene expression. Gene therapy is currently prohibited in both human and equine athletes because of the potential to induce production of performance-enhancing proteins in the athlete's body, also referred to as "gene doping." Detection of gene doping is challenging and necessitates development of creative, novel analytical methods for doping control. Methods for detection of gene doping must be specific to and will vary depending on the type of gene therapy. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a systematic review of gene editing, gene therapy, and detection of gene doping in horses. Based on the published literature, gene therapy has been administered to horses in a large number of experimental studies and a smaller number of clinical cases. Detection of gene therapy is possible using a combination of PCR and sequencing technologies. This summary can provide a basis for discussion of appropriate and inappropriate uses for gene therapy in horses by the veterinary community and guide expansion of methods to detect inappropriate uses by the regulatory community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Haughan
- Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kyla F Ortved
- Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Mary A Robinson
- Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, USA.,Pennsylvania Equine Toxicology & Research Center, West Chester University, West Chester, Pennsylvania, USA
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Guo M, Deng L, Liang H, Du Y, Gao W, Tian N, Bi Y, Li J, Ma T, Zhang Y, Wang H. Development and Preliminary Application of a Droplet Digital PCR Assay for Quantifying the Oncolytic Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in the Clinical-Grade Production. Viruses 2023; 15:178. [PMID: 36680218 PMCID: PMC9867280 DOI: 10.3390/v15010178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic herpes simplex virus (oHSV) is a type of virus that selectively targets and kills cancer cells, leaving normal cells unharmed. Accurate viral titer is of great importance for the production and application of oHSV products. Droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) is known for having good reproducibility, not requiring a standard curve, not being affected by inhibitors, and being precise even in the detection of low copies. In the present study, we developed a droplet digital PCR assay for the quantification of HSV-1 and applied it in the oHSV production. The established ddPCR showed good specificity, linearity, a low limit of quantification, great reproducibility, and accuracy. The quantification result was well-associated with that of plaque assay and CCID50. Amplification of the purified virus without DNA extraction by ddPCR presented similar results to that from the extracted DNA, confirming the good resistance against PCR inhibitors. With the ddPCR, viral titer could be monitored in real time during the production of oHSV; the optimal harvest time was determined for the best virus yield in each batch. The ddPCR can be used as a useful tool for the quantification of oHSV and greatly facilitate the manufacturing process of oHSV products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaomiao Guo
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
| | - Li Deng
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
| | - Hongyang Liang
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
| | - Yuyao Du
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
| | - Wenrui Gao
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
| | - Na Tian
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
| | - Ying Bi
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
| | - Jinghua Li
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
| | - Tiancong Ma
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
| | - Yuntao Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
- China National Biotec Group Company Limited, 100024 Beijing, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Beijing Institute of Biological Products Company Limited, 100176 Beijing, China
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9
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Comparison of RT-dPCR and RT-qPCR and the effects of freeze-thaw cycle and glycine release buffer for wastewater SARS-CoV-2 analysis. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20641. [PMID: 36450877 PMCID: PMC9709738 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25187-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Public health efforts to control the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic rely on accurate information on the spread of the disease in the community. Acute and surveillance testing has been primarily used to characterize the extent of the disease. However, obtaining a representative sample of the human population is challenging because of limited testing capacity and incomplete testing compliance. Wastewater-based epidemiology is an agnostic alternative to surveillance testing that provides an average sample from the population served by the treatment facility. We compare the performance of reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and reverse transcription digital droplet PCR (RT-dPCR) for analysis of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in a regional wastewater treatment facility in northern Indiana, USA from the earliest stages of the pandemic. 1-L grab samples of wastewater were clarified and concentrated. Nucleic acids were extracted from aliquots and analyzed in parallel using the two methods. Synthetic viral nucleic acids were used for method development and generation of add-in standard-curves. Both methods were highly sensitive in detecting SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater, with detection limits as low as 1 copy per 500 mL wastewater. RT-qPCR and RT-dPCR provided essentially identical coefficients of variation (s/[Formula: see text] = 0.15) for triplicate measurements made on wastewater samples taken on 16 days. We also observed a sevenfold decrease in viral load from a grab sample that was frozen at - 80 °C for 92 days compared to results obtained without freezing. Freezing samples before analysis should be discouraged. Finally, we found that treatment with a glycine release buffer resulted in a fourfold inhibition in RT-qPCR signal; treatment with a glycine release buffer also should be discouraged. Despite their prevalence and convenience in wastewater analysis, glycine release and freezing samples severely and additively (~ tenfold) degraded recovery and detection of SARS-CoV-2.
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10
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Yan J, Xu Z, Zhou H, Li T, Du X, Hu R, Zhu J, Ou G, Li Y, Yang Y. Integration of CRISPR/Cas12a and Multiplexed RPA for Fast Detection of Gene Doping. Anal Chem 2022; 94:16481-16490. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c04079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiayu Yan
- Lab of Biochemistry, School of Physical Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology - Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Zhichen Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology - Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, China
| | - Hu Zhou
- Department of Gynecological Oncology, National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Tao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology - Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, China
| | - Xincheng Du
- Lab of Biochemistry, School of Physical Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Rui Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology - Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, China
| | - Jiang Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology - Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, China
| | - Gaozhi Ou
- Lab of Biochemistry, School of Physical Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Ying Li
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology - Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, China
| | - Yunhuang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology - Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, China
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11
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Tozaki T, Ohnuma A, Nakamura K, Hano K, Takasu M, Takahashi Y, Tamura N, Sato F, Shimizu K, Kikuchi M, Ishige T, Kakoi H, Hirota KI, Hamilton NA, Nagata SI. Detection of Indiscriminate Genetic Manipulation in Thoroughbred Racehorses by Targeted Resequencing for Gene-Doping Control. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13091589. [PMID: 36140757 PMCID: PMC9498419 DOI: 10.3390/genes13091589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The creation of genetically modified horses is prohibited in horse racing as it falls under the banner of gene doping. In this study, we developed a test to detect gene editing based on amplicon sequencing using next-generation sequencing (NGS). We designed 1012 amplicons to target 52 genes (481 exons) and 147 single-nucleotide variants (SNVs). NGS analyses showed that 97.7% of the targeted exons were sequenced to sufficient coverage (depth > 50) for calling variants. The targets of artificial editing were defined as homozygous alternative (HomoALT) and compound heterozygous alternative (ALT1/ALT2) insertion/deletion (INDEL) mutations in this study. Four models of gene editing (three homoALT with 1-bp insertions, one REF/ALT with 77-bp deletion) were constructed by editing the myostatin gene in horse fibroblasts using CRISPR/Cas9. The edited cells and 101 samples from thoroughbred horses were screened using the developed test, which was capable of identifying the three homoALT cells containing 1-bp insertions. Furthermore, 147 SNVs were investigated for their utility in confirming biological parentage. Of these, 120 SNVs were amenable to consistent and accurate genotyping. Surrogate (nonbiological) dams were excluded by 9.8 SNVs on average, indicating that the 120 SNV could be used to detect foals that have been produced by somatic cloning or embryo transfer, two practices that are prohibited in thoroughbred racing and breeding. These results indicate that gene-editing tests that include variant calling and SNV genotyping are useful to identify genetically modified racehorses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teruaki Tozaki
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2, Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya 320-0851, Japan
- Correspondence:
| | - Aoi Ohnuma
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2, Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya 320-0851, Japan
| | - Kotono Nakamura
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1, Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Kazuki Hano
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1, Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Masaki Takasu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1, Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Yuji Takahashi
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, 1400-4, Shiba, Shimotsuke 329-0412, Japan
| | - Norihisa Tamura
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, 1400-4, Shiba, Shimotsuke 329-0412, Japan
| | - Fumio Sato
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, 1400-4, Shiba, Shimotsuke 329-0412, Japan
| | - Kyo Shimizu
- Registration Department, Japan Association for International Racing and Stud Book, 4-5-4, Shimbashi, Minato, Tokyo 105-0004, Japan
| | - Mio Kikuchi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2, Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya 320-0851, Japan
| | - Taichiro Ishige
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2, Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya 320-0851, Japan
| | - Hironaga Kakoi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2, Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya 320-0851, Japan
| | - Kei-ichi Hirota
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2, Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya 320-0851, Japan
| | - Natasha A. Hamilton
- Equine Genetics Research Centre, Racing Australia, 2 Randwick Way, Scone, NSW 2337, Australia
| | - Shun-ichi Nagata
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2, Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya 320-0851, Japan
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12
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Sun Y, Huang Y, Qi T, Jin Q, Jia C, Zhao J, Feng S, Liang L. Wet-Etched Microchamber Array Digital PCR Chip for SARS-CoV-2 Virus and Ultra-Early Stage Lung Cancer Quantitative Detection. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:1819-1826. [PMID: 35036821 PMCID: PMC8751011 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c05082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
We report a novel design of chamber-based digital polymerase chain reaction (cdPCR) chip structure. Using a wet etching process and silicon-glass bonding, the chamber size can be adjusted independently of the process and more feasibly in a normal lab. In addition, the structure of the chip is optimized through hydrodynamic computer simulations to eliminate dead space when the sample is injected into the chip. The samples will be distributed to each separated microchambers for an isolated reaction based on Poisson distribution. Due to the difference in expansion coefficients, isolation of the sample in the microchambers by the oil phase on top ensures homogeneity and independence of the sample in the microchambers. The prepared microarray cdPCR chip enables high-throughput and high-sensitivity quantitative measurement of the SARS-CoV-2 virus gene and the mutant lung cancer gene. We applied the chip for the detection of different concentrations of the mix containing the open reading frame 1ab (ORF1ab) gene, the most specific and conservative gene region of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. In addition to this, we also successfully detected the fluorescence of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutant gene in independent microchambers. At a throughput of 46 200 microchambers, solution mixtures containing both genes were successfully tested quantitatively, with a detection limit of 10 copies/μL. Importantly, the chips are individually inexpensive and easy to industrialize. In addition, the microarray can provide a unified solution for other viral sequences, cancer marker assay development, and point-of-care testing (POCT).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimeng Sun
- State
Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
- Center
of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yaru Huang
- State
Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
- School
of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200235, China
| | - Tong Qi
- State
Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
| | - Qinghui Jin
- State
Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
- Faculty
of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Chunping Jia
- State
Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
| | - Jianlong Zhao
- State
Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
- Center
of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shilun Feng
- State
Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
| | - Lijuan Liang
- State
Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem
and Information Technology, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
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13
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Thevis M, Kuuranne T, Geyer H. Annual banned-substance review: Analytical approaches in human sports drug testing 2020/2021. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:7-30. [PMID: 34788500 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Most core areas of anti-doping research exploit and rely on analytical chemistry, applied to studies aiming at further improving the test methods' analytical sensitivity, the assays' comprehensiveness, the interpretation of metabolic profiles and patterns, but also at facilitating the differentiation of natural/endogenous substances from structurally identical but synthetically derived compounds and comprehending the athlete's exposome. Further, a continuously growing number of advantages of complementary matrices such as dried blood spots have been identified and transferred from research to sports drug testing routine applications, with an overall gain of valuable additions to the anti-doping field. In this edition of the annual banned-substance review, literature on recent developments in anti-doping published between October 2020 and September 2021 is summarized and discussed, particularly focusing on human doping controls and potential applications of new testing strategies to substances and methods of doping specified in the World Anti-Doping Agency's 2021 Prohibited List.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Center for Preventive Doping Research, Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, Cologne, Germany
| | - Tiia Kuuranne
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Genève and Lausanne, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Hans Geyer
- Center for Preventive Doping Research, Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, Cologne, Germany
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14
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Liu Y, Jeraldo P, Mendes-Soares H, Masters T, Asangba AE, Nelson H, Patel R, Chia N, Walther-Antonio M. Amplification of Femtograms of Bacterial DNA Within 3 h Using a Digital Microfluidics Platform for MinION Sequencing. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:25642-25651. [PMID: 34632220 PMCID: PMC8495859 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c03683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Whole genome sequencing is emerging as a promising tool for the untargeted detection of a broad range of microbial species for diagnosis and analysis. However, it is logistically challenging to perform the multistep process from sample preparation to DNA amplification to sequencing and analysis within a short turnaround time. To address this challenge, we developed a digital microfluidic device for rapid whole genome amplification of low-abundance bacterial DNA and compared results with conventional in-tube DNA amplification. In this work, we chose Corynebacterium glutamicum DNA as a bacterial target for method development and optimization, as it is not a common contaminant. Sequencing was performed in a hand-held Oxford Nanopore Technologies MinION sequencer. Our results show that using an in-tube amplification approach, at least 1 pg starting DNA is needed to reach the amount required for successful sequencing within 2 h. While using a digital microfluidic device, it is possible to amplify as low as 10 fg of C. glutamicum DNA (equivalent to the amount of DNA within a single bacterial cell) within 2 h and to identify the target bacterium within 30 min of MinION sequencing-100× lower than the detection limit of an in-tube amplification approach. We demonstrate the detection of C. glutamicum DNA in a mock community DNA sample and characterize the limit of bacterial detection in the presence of human cells. This approach can be used to identify microbes with minute amounts of genetic material in samples depleted of human cells within 3 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuguang Liu
- Department
of Surgery, Division of Surgical Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
- Microbiome
Program, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
- Department
of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
| | - Patricio Jeraldo
- Department
of Surgery, Division of Surgical Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
- Microbiome
Program, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
| | - Helena Mendes-Soares
- Microbiome
Program, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
| | - Thao Masters
- Division
of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
| | - Abigail E. Asangba
- Department
of Surgery, Division of Surgical Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
- Microbiome
Program, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
| | - Heidi Nelson
- Department
of Surgery, Division of Surgical Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
- Microbiome
Program, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
| | - Robin Patel
- Division
of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
- Division
of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
| | - Nicholas Chia
- Department
of Surgery, Division of Surgical Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
- Microbiome
Program, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
| | - Marina Walther-Antonio
- Department
of Surgery, Division of Surgical Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
- Microbiome
Program, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
- Department
of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905-0002, United States
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15
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Tozaki T, Ohnuma A, Hamilton NA, Kikuchi M, Ishige T, Kakoi H, Hirota KI, Kusano K, Nagata SI. Low-copy transgene detection using nested digital polymerase chain reaction for gene-doping control. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:382-387. [PMID: 34608764 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Gene doping is prohibited for fair competition in human and horse sports. One style of gene doping is the administration of an exogeneous gene, called a transgene, to postnatal humans and horses. Although many transgene detection methods based on quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), including real-time PCR and digital PCR, have been recently developed, it remains difficult to reliably detect low-copy transgenes. In this study, we developed and validated a nested digital PCR method to specifically detect low-copy transgenes. The nested digital PCR consists of (1) preamplification using conventional PCR and (2) droplet digital PCR detection using a hydrolysis probe. Using 5, 10, 20, 60 and 120 transgene copies as template, 496.0, 1089.7, 1820.7, 4313.3 and 7840.0 copies per microlitre, respectively, were detected using our nested digital PCR. Although high concentrations of phenol, proteinase K, ethanol, EDTA, heparin and genomic DNA all inhibited preamplification, their effects on the digital PCR detection were limited. Once preamplification was successful, even substitution of bases within the primers and probes had minimal effects on transgene detection. The nested digital PCR developed in this study successfully detected low-copy transgenes and can be used to perform a qualitative test, indicating its usefulness in the prevention of false positives and false negatives in gene-doping detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teruaki Tozaki
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Aoi Ohnuma
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Natasha A Hamilton
- Equine Genetics Research Centre, Racing Australia, Scone, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mio Kikuchi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Taichiro Ishige
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Hironaga Kakoi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Kei-Ichi Hirota
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Kanichi Kusano
- Equine Department, Japan Racing Association, Minato, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shun-Ichi Nagata
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
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16
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Tozaki T, Ohnuma A, Kikuchi M, Ishige T, Kakoi H, Hirota KI, Kusano K, Nagata SI. Robustness of digital PCR and real-time PCR against inhibitors in transgene detection for gene doping control in equestrian sports. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1768-1775. [PMID: 34270866 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Gene doping is a threat to fair competition in sports, both human and equestrian. One method of gene doping is to administer exogenous genetic materials, called transgenes, into the bodies of postnatal humans and horses. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based transgene detection methods such as digital PCR and real-time PCR have been developed for gene doping testing in humans and horses. However, the significance of PCR inhibitors in gene doping testing has not been well evaluated. In this study, we evaluated the effects of PCR inhibitors on transgene detection using digital PCR and real-time PCR against gene doping. Digital PCR amplification was significantly inhibited by high concentrations of proteinase K (more than 0.1 μg/μl), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (more than 5 nmol/μl), and heparin (more than 0.05 unit/μl) but not by ethanol or genomic DNA. In addition, phenol affected droplet formation in the digital PCR amplification process. Real-time PCR amplification was inhibited by high concentrations of phenol (more than 1% v/v), proteinase K (more than 0.001 μg/μl), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (more than 1 nmol/μl), heparin (more than 0.005 unit/μl), and genomic DNA (more than 51.9 ng/μl) but not by ethanol. Although both PCR systems were inhibited by nearly the same substances, digital PCR was more robust than real-time PCR against the inhibitors. We believe that our findings are important for the development of better methods for transgene detection and prevention of false negative results in gene doping testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teruaki Tozaki
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Aoi Ohnuma
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Mio Kikuchi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Taichiro Ishige
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Hironaga Kakoi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Kei-Ichi Hirota
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Kanichi Kusano
- Equine Department, Japan Racing Association, Minato, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shun-Ichi Nagata
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan
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