Dynamic Electrochemiluminescence Imaging of Single Giant Liposome Opening at Polarized Electrodes

Shadow electrochemiluminescence imaging of giant liposomes opening at polarized electrodes

In this work, the release of giant liposome (∼100 μm in diameter) content was imaged by shadow electrochemiluminescence (ECL) microscopy. Giant unilamellar liposomes were pre-loaded with a sucrose solution and allowed to sediment at an ITO electrode surface immersed in a solution containing a luminophore ([Ru(bpy)3]2+) and a sacrificial co-reactant (tri-n-propylamine). Upon polarization, the electrode exhibited illumination over its entire surface thanks to the oxidation of ECL reagents. However, as soon as liposomes reached the electrode surface, dark spots appeared and then spread over time on the surface. This observation reflected a blockage of the electrode surface at the contact point between the liposome and the electrode surface, followed by the dilution of ECL reagents after the rupture of the liposome membrane and release of its internal ECL-inactive solution. Interestingly, ECL reappeared in areas where it initially faded, indicating back-diffusion of ECL reagents towards the previously diluted area and thus confirming liposome permeabilization. The whole process was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively within the defined region of interest. Two mass transport regimes were identified: a gravity-driven spreading process when the liposome releases its content leading to ECL vanishing and a diffusive regime when ECL recovers. The reported shadow ECL microscopy should find promising applications for the imaging of transient events such as molecular species released by artificial or biological vesicles.

Nanoscale Luminescence Imaging/Detection of Single Particles: State-of-the-Art and Future Prospects

Single-particle-level measurements, during the reaction, avoid averaging effects that are inherent limitations of conventional ensemble strategies. It allows revealing structure-activity relationships beyond averaged properties by considering crucial particle-selective descriptors including structure/morphology dynamics, intrinsic heterogeneity, and dynamic fluctuations in reactivity (kinetics, mechanisms). In recent years, numerous luminescence (optical) techniques such as chemiluminescence (CL), electrochemiluminescence (ECL), and fluorescence (FL) microscopies have been emerging as dominant tools to achieve such measurements, owing to their diversified spectroscopy principles, noninvasive nature, higher sensitivity, and sufficient spatiotemporal resolution. Correspondingly, state-of-the-art methodologies and tools are being used for probing (real-time, operando, in situ) diverse applications of single particles in sensing, medicine, and catalysis. Herein, we provide a concise and comprehensive perspective on luminescence-based detection and imaging of single particles by putting special emphasis on their basic principles, mechanistic pathways, advances, challenges, and key applications. This Perspective focuses on the development of emission intensities and imaging based individual particle detection. Moreover, several key examples in the areas of sensing, motion, catalysis, energy, materials, and emerging trends in related areas are documented. We finally conclude with the opportunities and remaining challenges to stimulate further developments in this field.

Electrochemiluminescent imaging of a NADH-based enzymatic reaction confined within giant liposomes

Herein, transient releases either from NADH-loaded liposomes or enzymatic reactions confined in giant liposomes were imaged by electrochemiluminescence (ECL). NADH was first encapsulated with the [Ru(bpy)3]2+ luminophore inside giant liposomes (around 100 µm in diameter) made of DOPC/DOPG phospholipids (i.e., 1,2-dioleolyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine/1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) sodium salt) on their inner- and outer-leaflet, respectively. Then, membrane permeabilization triggered upon contact between the liposome and a polarized ITO electrode surface and ECL was locally generated. Combination of amperometry, photoluminescence, and ECL provided a comprehensive monitoring of a single liposome opening and content release. In a second part, the work is focused on the ECL characterization of NADH produced by glucose dehydrogenase (GDH)-catalyzed oxidation of glucose in the confined environment delimited by the liposome membrane. This was achieved by encapsulating both the ECL and catalytic reagents (i.e., the GDH, glucose, NAD+, and [Ru(bpy)3]2+) in the liposome. In accordance with the results obtained, NADH can be used as a biologically compatible ECL co-reactant to image membrane permeabilization events of giant liposomes. Under these conditions, the ECL signal duration was rather long (around 10 s). Since many enzymatic reactions involve the NADH/NAD+ redox couple, this work opens up interesting prospects for the characterization of enzymatic reactions taking place notably in artificial cells and in confined environments.

Bimodal Electrochemiluminescence Microscopy of Single Cells

Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) microscopy is an emerging technique with new applications such as imaging of single entities and cells. Herein, we have developed a bimodal and bicolor approach to record both positive ECL (PECL: light-emitting object on dark background) and shadow label-free ECL (SECL: nonemissive object shadowing the background luminescence) images of single cells. This bimodal approach is the result of the simultaneous emissions of [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺ used to label the cellular membrane (PECL) and [Ir(sppy)₃]^3- dissolved in solution (SECL). By spectrally resolving the ECL emission wavelengths, we recorded the images of the same cells in both PECL and SECL modes using the [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺ (λ_max = 620 nm) and [Ir(sppy)₃]^3- (λ_max = 515 nm) luminescence, respectively. PECL shows the distribution of the [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺ labels attached to the cellular membrane, whereas SECL reflects the local diffusional hindrance of the ECL reagents by each cell. The high sensitivity and surface-confined features of the reported approach are demonstrated by imaging cell-cell contacts during the mitosis process. Furthermore, the comparison of PECL and SECL images demonstrates the differential diffusion of tri-n-propylamine and [Ir(sppy)₃]^3- through the permeabilized cell membranes. Consequently, this dual approach enables the imaging of the morphology of the cell adhering on the surface and can significantly contribute to multimodal ECL imaging and bioassays with different luminescent systems.

Assessing membrane material properties from the response of giant unilamellar vesicles to electric fields

Knowledge of the material properties of membranes is crucial to understanding cell viability and physiology. A number of methods have been developed to probe membranes in vitro, utilizing the response of minimal biomimetic membrane models to an external perturbation. In this review, we focus on techniques employing giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), model membrane systems, often referred to as minimal artificial cells because of the potential they offer to mimick certain cellular features. When exposed to electric fields, GUV deformation, dynamic response and poration can be used to deduce properties such as bending rigidity, pore edge tension, membrane capacitance, surface shear viscosity, excess area and membrane stability. We present a succinct overview of these techniques, which require only simple instrumentation, available in many labs, as well as reasonably facile experimental implementation and analysis.