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Schaefer C, Lippmann M, Schindler C, Beukers M, Beijer N, Hitzemann M, van de Kamp B, Peters R, Knotter J, Zimmermann S. Pursuing drug laboratories: Analysis of drug precursors with High Kinetic Energy Ion Mobility Spectrometry. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 363:112196. [PMID: 39151243 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.112196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Revised: 08/06/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 08/19/2024]
Abstract
High Kinetic Energy Ion Mobility Spectrometry (HiKE-IMS) is a technique for rapid and reliable detection of trace compounds down to ppbV-levels within one second. Compared to classical IMS operating at ambient pressure and providing the ion mobility at low electric fields, HiKE-IMS can also provide the analyte-specific field dependence of the ion mobility and a fragmentation pattern at high reduced electric field strengths. The additional information about the analyte obtained by varying the reduced electric field strength can contribute to reliable detection. Furthermore, the reduced number of ion-molecule reactions at the low operating pressure of 10 - 40 mbar and the shorter reaction times reduce the impact of competing ion-molecule reactions that can cause false negatives. In this work, we employ HiKE-IMS for the analysis of phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) and other precursor chemicals used for synthesis of methamphetamine and amphetamine. The results show that the precursor chemicals exhibit different behavior in HiKE-IMS. Some precursors form a single significant ion species, while others readily form a fragmentation pattern. Nevertheless, all drug precursors can be distinguished from each other, from the reactant ions and from interfering compounds. In particular, the field-dependent ion mobility as an additional separation dimension aids identification, potentially reducing the number of false positive alarms in field applications. Furthermore, the analysis of a seized illicit P2P sample shows that even low levels of P2P can be detected despite the complex background present in the headspace of real samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Schaefer
- Leibniz University Hannover, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Appelstr. 9A, Hannover 30167, Germany.
| | - Martin Lippmann
- Leibniz University Hannover, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Appelstr. 9A, Hannover 30167, Germany
| | - Clara Schindler
- Leibniz University Hannover, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Appelstr. 9A, Hannover 30167, Germany
| | - Michiel Beukers
- Research Group Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, M.H Tromplaan 28, Enschede 7513AB, the Netherlands; Knowledge Centre of Digitalization, Intelligence and Technology, Police Academy of the Netherlands, Arnhemseweg 348, Apeldoorn 7334AC, the Netherlands
| | - Niels Beijer
- Research Group Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, M.H Tromplaan 28, Enschede 7513AB, the Netherlands; Knowledge Centre of Digitalization, Intelligence and Technology, Police Academy of the Netherlands, Arnhemseweg 348, Apeldoorn 7334AC, the Netherlands
| | - Moritz Hitzemann
- Leibniz University Hannover, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Appelstr. 9A, Hannover 30167, Germany
| | - Ben van de Kamp
- Research Group Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, M.H Tromplaan 28, Enschede 7513AB, the Netherlands; Knowledge Centre of Digitalization, Intelligence and Technology, Police Academy of the Netherlands, Arnhemseweg 348, Apeldoorn 7334AC, the Netherlands
| | - Ruud Peters
- Research Group Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, M.H Tromplaan 28, Enschede 7513AB, the Netherlands; Knowledge Centre of Digitalization, Intelligence and Technology, Police Academy of the Netherlands, Arnhemseweg 348, Apeldoorn 7334AC, the Netherlands
| | - Jaap Knotter
- Research Group Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, M.H Tromplaan 28, Enschede 7513AB, the Netherlands; Knowledge Centre of Digitalization, Intelligence and Technology, Police Academy of the Netherlands, Arnhemseweg 348, Apeldoorn 7334AC, the Netherlands
| | - Stefan Zimmermann
- Leibniz University Hannover, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Appelstr. 9A, Hannover 30167, Germany
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2
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Schaefer C, Allers M, Hitzemann M, Nitschke A, Kobelt T, Mörtel M, Schröder S, Ficks A, Zimmermann S. Reliable Detection of Chemical Warfare Agents Using High Kinetic Energy Ion Mobility Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2024; 35:2008-2019. [PMID: 39013159 PMCID: PMC11311216 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.4c00240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2024] [Revised: 07/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
High Kinetic Energy Ion Mobility Spectrometers (HiKE-IMS) ionize and separate ions at reduced pressures of 10-40 mbar and over a wide range of reduced electric field strengths E/N of up to 120 Td. Their reduced operating pressure is distinct from that of conventional drift tube ion mobility spectrometers that operate at ambient pressure for trace compound detection. High E/N can lead to a field-induced fragmentation pattern that provides more specific structural information about the analytes. In addition, operation at high E/N values adds the field dependence of ion mobility as an additional separation dimension to low-field ion mobility, making interfering compounds less likely to cause a false positive alarm. In this work, we study the chemical warfare agents tabun (GA), sarin (GB), soman (GD), cyclosarin (GF) and sulfur mustard (HD) in a HiKE-IMS at variable E/N in both the reaction and the drift region. The results show that varying E/N can lead to specific fragmentation patterns at high E/N values combined with molecular signals at low E/N. Compared to the operation at a single E/N value in the drift region, the variation of E/N in the drift region also provides the analyte-specific field dependence of ion mobility as additional information. The accumulated data establish a unique fingerprint for each analyte that allows for reliable detection of chemical warfare agents even in the presence of interfering compounds with similar low-field ion mobilities, thus reducing false positives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Schaefer
- Institute
of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of
Sensors and Measurement Technology, Leibniz
University Hannover, Appelstr. 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Maria Allers
- Bundeswehr
Research Institute for Protective Technologies and CBRN Protection, Humboldtstrasse 100, 29633 Munster, Germany
| | - Moritz Hitzemann
- Institute
of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of
Sensors and Measurement Technology, Leibniz
University Hannover, Appelstr. 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Alexander Nitschke
- Institute
of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of
Sensors and Measurement Technology, Leibniz
University Hannover, Appelstr. 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Tim Kobelt
- Institute
of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of
Sensors and Measurement Technology, Leibniz
University Hannover, Appelstr. 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Max Mörtel
- Bundeswehr
Research Institute for Protective Technologies and CBRN Protection, Humboldtstrasse 100, 29633 Munster, Germany
| | - Stefanie Schröder
- Bundeswehr
Research Institute for Protective Technologies and CBRN Protection, Humboldtstrasse 100, 29633 Munster, Germany
| | - Arne Ficks
- Bundeswehr
Research Institute for Protective Technologies and CBRN Protection, Humboldtstrasse 100, 29633 Munster, Germany
| | - Stefan Zimmermann
- Institute
of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of
Sensors and Measurement Technology, Leibniz
University Hannover, Appelstr. 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
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Liu S, Guo Y, Jiang Y, Gong Y, Hu Q, Yu L. Single-Chain Conjugated Polymer Guests Confined inside Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs): Boosting the Detection and Degradation of a Sulfur Mustard Simulant. Anal Chem 2024. [PMID: 38301156 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c03588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Real-time detection and effective degradation of toxic gases have attracted considerable attention in environmental monitoring and human health. Here, we demonstrate a solvent-assisted dynamic assembly strategy to strongly enhance the detection and degradation performance for 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES, as a sulfur mustard simulant) via confinement of a conjugated polymer in metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). The conjugated polymer poly(9,9-di-n-octylfluorene-altbenzothiadiazole) (F8BT) is infiltrated into one-dimensional nanochannels of the Zr-based topological MOF NU-1000 in a single-chain manner, which is caused by the nanoconfinement effect and the steric hindrance between 9,9-dioctylfluorene units and benzothiadiazole units. The obtained F8BT⊂NU-1000 composites provide a high specific surface area and abundant active sites. Based on the cooperative effect of F8BT and NU-1000, rapid and sensitive detection of CEES has been achieved. Moreover, the F8BT⊂NU-1000 composites can selectively oxidize CEES into 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfoxide (CEESO) under mild photooxidation conditions. Overall, this study opens a new avenue for the fabrication of conjugated polymer/MOF hybrid materials that show great potential for the sensitive detection and effective removal of hazardous chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuya Liu
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Yongxian Guo
- Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China
| | - Yifei Jiang
- Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310022, China
| | - Yanjun Gong
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Qiongzheng Hu
- Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China
| | - Li Yu
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
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Schaefer C, Lippmann M, Beukers M, Beijer N, van de Kamp B, Knotter J, Zimmermann S. Detection of Triacetone Triperoxide by High Kinetic Energy Ion Mobility Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2023; 95:17099-17107. [PMID: 37946366 PMCID: PMC10666079 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c04101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
High Kinetic Energy Ion Mobility Spectrometry (HiKE-IMS) is a versatile technique for the detection of gaseous target molecules that is particularly useful in complex chemical environments, while the instrumental effort is low. Operating HiKE-IMS at reduced pressures from 10 to 60 mbar results in fewer ion-neutral collisions than at ambient pressure, reducing chemical cross-sensitivities and eliminating the need for a preceding separation dimension, e.g., by gas chromatography. In addition, HiKE-IMS allows operation over a wide range of reduced electric field strengths E/N up to 120 Td, allowing separation of ions by low-field ion mobility and exploiting the field dependence of ion mobility, potentially allowing separation of ion species at high E/N despite similar low-field ion mobilities. Given these advantages, HiKE-IMS can be a useful tool for trace gas analysis such as triacetone triperoxide (TATP) detection. In this study, we employed HiKE-IMS to detect TATP. We explore the ionization of TATP and the field-dependent ion mobilities, providing a database of the ion mobilities depending on E/N. Confirming the literature results, ionization of TATP by proton transfer with H3O+ in HiKE-IMS generates fragments, but using NH4+ as the primary reactant ion leads to the TATP·NH4+ adduct. This adduct fragments at high E/N, which could provide additional information for reliable detection of TATP. Thus, operating HiKE-IMS at variable E/N in the drift region generates a unique fingerprint of TATP made of all ion species related to TATP and their ion mobilities depending on E/N, potentially reducing the rate of false positives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Schaefer
- Institute
of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of
Sensors and Measurement Technology, Leibniz
University Hannover, Appelstr. 9A, Hannover 30167, Germany
| | - Martin Lippmann
- Institute
of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of
Sensors and Measurement Technology, Leibniz
University Hannover, Appelstr. 9A, Hannover 30167, Germany
| | - Michiel Beukers
- Research
Group Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, M.H Tromplaan 28, Enschede 7513AB, The Netherlands
- Knowledge
Centre of Digitalization, Intelligence, and Technology, Police Academy of The Netherlands, Arnhemseweg 348, Apeldoorn 7334AC, The Netherlands
| | - Niels Beijer
- Research
Group Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, M.H Tromplaan 28, Enschede 7513AB, The Netherlands
- Knowledge
Centre of Digitalization, Intelligence, and Technology, Police Academy of The Netherlands, Arnhemseweg 348, Apeldoorn 7334AC, The Netherlands
| | - Ben van de Kamp
- Research
Group Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, M.H Tromplaan 28, Enschede 7513AB, The Netherlands
- Knowledge
Centre of Digitalization, Intelligence, and Technology, Police Academy of The Netherlands, Arnhemseweg 348, Apeldoorn 7334AC, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap Knotter
- Research
Group Technologies for Criminal Investigations, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, M.H Tromplaan 28, Enschede 7513AB, The Netherlands
- Knowledge
Centre of Digitalization, Intelligence, and Technology, Police Academy of The Netherlands, Arnhemseweg 348, Apeldoorn 7334AC, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan Zimmermann
- Institute
of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of
Sensors and Measurement Technology, Leibniz
University Hannover, Appelstr. 9A, Hannover 30167, Germany
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5
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Liu L, Wang Z, Zhang Q, Mei Y, Li L, Liu H, Wang Z, Yang L. Ion Mobility Mass Spectrometry for the Separation and Characterization of Small Molecules. Anal Chem 2023; 95:134-151. [PMID: 36625109 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Longchan Liu
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai201203, China
| | - Ziying Wang
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai201203, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai201203, China
| | - Yuqi Mei
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai201203, China
| | - Linnan Li
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai201203, China
| | - Huwei Liu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing100871, China
| | - Zhengtao Wang
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai201203, China
| | - Li Yang
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai201203, China.,Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai201203, China
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6
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Ahrens A, Allers M, Bock H, Hitzemann M, Ficks A, Zimmermann S. Detection of Chemical Warfare Agents with a Miniaturized High-Performance Drift Tube Ion Mobility Spectrometer Using High-Energetic Photons for Ionization. Anal Chem 2022; 94:15440-15447. [PMID: 36301910 PMCID: PMC9647701 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
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A growing demand for low-cost gas sensors capable of
detecting
the smallest amounts of highly toxic substances in air, including
chemical warfare agents (CWAs) and toxic industrial chemicals (TICs),
has emerged in recent years. Ion mobility spectrometers (IMS) are
particularly suitable for this application due to their high sensitivity
and fast response times. In view of the preferred mobile use of such
devices, miniaturized ion drift tubes are required as the core of
IMS-based lightweight, low-cost, hand-held gas detectors. Thus, we
evaluate the suitability of a miniaturized ion mobility spectrometer
featuring an ion drift tube length of just 40 mm and a high resolving
power of Rp = 60 for the detection of
various CWAs, such as nerve agents sarin (GB), tabun (GA), soman (GD),
and cyclosarin (GF), as well as the blister agent sulfur mustard (HD),
the blood agent hydrogen cyanide (AC) and the choking agent chlorine
(CL). We report on the limits of detection reaching minimum concentration
levels of, for instance, 29 pptv for sarin (GB) within
an averaging time of only 1 s. Furthermore, we investigate the effects
of precursors, simulants, and other common interfering substances
on false positive alarms.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Ahrens
- Leibniz University Hannover, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Appelstr. 9A, 30167Hannover, Germany
| | - Maria Allers
- Bundeswehr Research Institute for Protective Technologies and CBRN Protection, Humboldtstraße 100, Munster29633, Germany
| | - Henrike Bock
- Bundeswehr Research Institute for Protective Technologies and CBRN Protection, Humboldtstraße 100, Munster29633, Germany
| | - Moritz Hitzemann
- Leibniz University Hannover, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Appelstr. 9A, 30167Hannover, Germany
| | - Arne Ficks
- Bundeswehr Research Institute for Protective Technologies and CBRN Protection, Humboldtstraße 100, Munster29633, Germany
| | - Stefan Zimmermann
- Leibniz University Hannover, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Appelstr. 9A, 30167Hannover, Germany
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Schaefer C, Schlottmann F, Kirk AT, Zimmermann S. Influence of Sample Gas Humidity on Product Ion Formation in High Kinetic Energy Ion Mobility Spectrometry (HiKE-IMS). JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2022; 33:1048-1060. [PMID: 35594571 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.2c00099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
High Kinetic Energy Ion Mobility Spectrometers (HiKE-IMS) chemically ionize gaseous samples via reactant ions and separate the generated ions by their motion in a neutral gas under the influence of an electric field. Operation at reduced pressures of 10-40 mbar allows for reaching high reduced electric field strengths (E/N) of up to 120 Td. At these high E/N, the generated ions gain the namesake high kinetic energies, leading to a decrease in cluster size of the reactant ions by increasing the reaction rate of collision-induced cluster dissociation of hydrates. In positive ion polarity and in purified air, H3O+(H2O)n, NO+(H2O)n, and O2+•(H2O)p are the most abundant reactant ions. In this work, we investigate the effect of varying sample gas humidity on product ion formation for several model substances. Results show that increasing the sample gas humidity at high E/N of 120 Td shifts product ion formation from a charge transfer dominated reaction system to a proton transfer dominated reaction system. For HiKE-IMS operated at high E/N, the reduction in cluster size of reactant ions allows ionization of analytes with low proton affinity even at high relative humidity in the sample gas of RH = 75% at 303.15 K and 1013.25 hPa. In contrast to conventional IMS, where increasing the sample gas humidity inhibits ionization for various analytes, increasing sample gas humidity in HiKE-IMS operated at 120 Td is actually beneficial for ionization yield of most analytes investigated in this work as it increases the number of H3O+(H2O)n.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Schaefer
- Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Leibniz University Hannover, Appelstrasse 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Florian Schlottmann
- Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Leibniz University Hannover, Appelstrasse 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Ansgar T Kirk
- Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Leibniz University Hannover, Appelstrasse 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Stefan Zimmermann
- Department of Sensors and Measurement Technology, Institute of Electrical Engineering and Measurement Technology, Leibniz University Hannover, Appelstrasse 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
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