Enhanced Electrochemiluminescence of Graphitic Carbon Nitride by Adjustment of Carbon Vacancy for Supersensitive Detection of MicroRNA

Flower-like tailored carbon nitride oligomer as an excellent aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence emitter for sensitive immunoassay of neuron-specific enolase via dual quenching by bimetallic phenolic networks

The adjustment of the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) of polymeric carbon nitride (C3N4) is essential for its application in sensitive immunoassays. However, such modification through aggregation-induced emission (AIE) has not yet been reported. Herein, aggregation-induced ECL in C3N4 oligomer (CNO) was induced through the introduction of a rotatable imine moiety, with the resulting material exhibiting excellent performance in the targeted immunodetection of neuron-specific enolase. Phenyl-modified CNO was synthesized through one-step pyrolysis at a reduced temperature. The rotatable benzene ring and triazine group formed a dynamic structure, which exhibited strong aggregation in water-doped solvents. compared to unmodified graphitic C3N4, CNO demonstrated higher intrinsic ECL efficiency and more readily accessible ECL signals. AIE inducing polymerization was conducted via nanoprecipitation, and the resulting CNO micro-flowers were employed as a sensing platform. A CNO-based sensor was prepared by combining CNO micro-flowers with copper-based bimetallic phenolic network nanoparticles as a quencher. Sensitive signal quenching was achieved owing to the electron transfer of Cu2+ and antioxidation properties of polyphenolic structures. The prepared sandwich-type immunosensor for neuron-specific enolase showed a limit of detection of 0.12 pg/mL in the detection range of 0.001-100 ng/mL. This study presents an effective strategy for the ECL signal amplification of C3N4, which is conducive to fundamental research in ECL and the application of the proposed sensor in the early diagnosis of diseases.

Enhanced electrochemiluminescence of dual-defect graphite carbon nitride for ultrasensitive detection of CEA

Herein, a dual-defective graphite carbon nitride (DDCN) was prepared by polymerization under N2 atmosphere combined with oxidation treatment. The luminous intensity of dual-defect graphite phase carbon nitride based on defect state luminescence is significantly improved compared to CN-air. On this basis, a biosensor for CEA detection was constructed based on specific immunobinding of antigen-antibody. It is noted that the biosensor exhibits a wide linear range of 1 × 10-5 ∼ 1 × 102 ng•mL-1, a low detection limit of 3.3 × 10-4 pg•mL-1, a recovery of 94 %∼105 % and RSD less than 4.41 %. In addition, there was no significant difference to the clinical results, indicating that this work has good clinical application prospects.

Dual-Ligand Europium-Organic Gels as a Highly Efficient Anodic Annihilation Electrochemiluminescence Emitter for Ultrasensitive Detection of MicroRNA

In this study, a novel europium dual-ligand metal-organic gel (Eu-D-MOGs) with high-efficient anodic annihilation electrochemiluminescence (ECL) was synthesized as an ECL emitter to construct a biosensor for ultrasensitive detection of microRNA-221 (miR-221). Impressively, compared to the ECL signal of europium single-ligand metal-organic gels (Eu-S-MOGs), the ECL signal of Eu-D-MOGs was significantly improved since the two organic ligands could jointly replace the H2O and coordinate with Eu3+, which could remarkably reduce the nonradiative vibrational energy transfer caused by the coordination between H2O and Eu3+ with a high coordination demand. In addition, Eu-D-MOGs could be electrochemically oxidized to Eu-D-MOGs•+ at 1.45 V and reduced to Eu-D-MOGs•- at 0.65 V to achieve effective annihilation of ECL, which overcame the side reaction brought by the remaining emitters at negative potential. This benefited from the annihilation ECL performance of the central ion Eu3+ caused by its redox in the electrochemical process. Furthermore, the annihilation ECL signal of Eu3+ could be improved by sensitizing Eu3+ via the antenna effect. In addition, combined with the improved rolling circle amplification-assisted strand displacement amplification strategy (RCA-SDA), a sensitive biosensor was constructed for the sensitive detection of miR-221 with a low detection limit of 5.12 aM and could be successfully applied for the detection of miR-221 in the lysate of cancer cells. This strategy offered a unique approach to synthesizing metal-organic gels as ECL emitters without a coreactant for the construction of ECL biosensing platforms in biomarker detection and disease diagnosis.

Electrochemiluminescence Enhancement and Passivation Mitigation in Carbon Nitride Semiconductors via an Integrated Ternary Heterostructure Strategy

In recent years, carbon nitride (CN) has attracted substantial attention in the field of electrochemiluminescence (ECL) applications, owing to its outstanding optical and electronic properties. However, the passivation of CN during the ECL process has contributed to reduced stability and poor repeatability. While some studies have tried to boost ECL performance by altering CN through doping and vacancies, effectively suppressing CN passivation at high potentials continues to be challenge. In this study, the built-in electric field and the Schottky barrier effect is used to expedite the transfer of electrons from CN to the molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) conduction band. This transfer deterred excessive electron injection into the CN band, thus mitigating its electrochemical degradation. Moreover, by introducing nickel nanoparticles (Ni NPs) as catalytic active sites, it is facilitated that the decomposition of potassium persulfate (K2S2O8), thereby enhancing both the stability and intensity of ECL emission. In the end, the application of ternary heterostructure as sensing platform for the cancer biomarker carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) demonstrated high sensitivity. This research introduces a novel approach to overcome CN passivation, paving the way for more promising applications of CN in energy, environmental, and biosensing fields.

Photoactivated Controlled Dnazyme Platform for on-Demand Activation Sensitive Electrochemiluminescence mRNA Analysis

Programming ultrasensitive and stimuli-responsive DNAzyme-based probes holds great potential for on-demand biomarker detection. Here, an optically triggered DNAzyme platform was reported for on-demand activation-sensitive electrochemiluminescence (ECL) c-myc mRNA analysis. In this design, the sensing and recognition function of the split DNAzyme (SDz) probe was silent by engineering a blocking sequence containing a photocleavable linker (PC-linker) group at a defined site that could be indirectly cleaved by 302 nm ultraviolet (UV) light. When the SDz probes were assembled on the Au nanoparticles and potassium (K) element doped graphitic carbon nitride nanosheet (K-doped g-C3N4) covered electrode, UV light activation induces the configurational switching and consequently the formation of an active DNAzyme probe with the help of target c-myc mRNA, allowing the cleavage of the substrate strand by magnesium ions (Mg2+). Thus, the release of a ferrocene (Fc)-labeled DNAzyme 2 strand contributed to an extreme ECL signal recovery. In the meantime, the released target c-myc mRNA combined another inactive SDz motif to form active DNAzyme and repeat the cyclic cleavage reaction, resulting in the signal amplification. Furthermore, according to the responses toward two other designed nPC-SDz and m-SDz probes, we demonstrated that controlled UV light mediated photoactivation of the DNAzyme biosensor "on demand" effectively constrained the ECL signal to the mRNA of interest. Moreover, false positive signals could also be avoided due to such a photoactivation design with UV light. Therefore, this study provided a simple methodology that may be broadly applicable for investigating the mRNA-associated physiological events that were difficult to access using traditional DNAzyme probes.

Sulfur vacancy defects mediated CdZnTeS@BC heterojunction: Artificial intelligence-assisted self-enhanced electrochemiluminescence molecularly imprinted sensing of CTC

Environmental pollution caused by tetracycline antibiotics is a major concern of global public health. Here, a novel and portable molecularly imprinted electrochemiluminescence (MIECL) sensor based on smartphones for highly sensitive detection of chlortetracycline (CTC) has been successfully established. The high-performance ECL emitter of biomass carbon (BC) encapsulated CdZnTeS (CdZnTeS@BC) was successfully synthesized by hydrothermal. The enhanced ECL performance was ascribed to the introduction of the BC and increased the overall electrical conductivity of the nanoemitter, as well as increased the number of sulfur vacancies and doping on the surface of the emitter based on density functional theory calculations. An aniline-CTC molecular imprinted polymer was synthesized on the surface of the CdZnTeS@BC modified electrode by in-situ electropolymerization. The decrease in MIECL signal was attributed to the increase in impedance effect. The MIECL nanoplatform enabled a wide linear relationship in the range of 0.05-100 μmol/L with a detection limit of 0.029 μmol/L for spectrometer sensors. Interestingly, the light emitted during the MIECL reaction can be captured by a smartphone. Thus, machine learning was used to screen the photos that were taken, and color analysis was carried out on the screened photos by self-developed software, thus achieving a portable, convenient, and intelligent sensing mode. Finally, the sensor obtains satisfactory results in the detection of actual samples, with no significant differences from those of liquid chromatography.

Functionalized nanomaterials-based electrochemiluminescent biosensors and their application in cancer biomarkers detection

To detect a range of trace biomarkers associated with human diseases, researchers have been focusing on developing biosensors that possess high sensitivity and specificity. Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensors have emerged as a prominent research tool in recent years, owing to their potential superiority in low background signal, high sensitivity, straightforward instrumentation, and ease of operation. Functional nanomaterials (FNMs) exhibit distinct advantages in optimizing electrical conductivity, increasing reaction rate, and expanding specific surface area due to their small size effect, quantum size effect, and surface and interface effects, which can significantly improve the stability, reproducibility, and sensitivity of the biosensors. Thereby, various nanomaterials (NMs) with excellent properties have been developed to construct efficient ECL biosensors. This review provides a detailed summary and discussion of FNMs-based ECL biosensors and their applications in cancer biomarkers detection.

Nickel Single-Atom Catalyst Boosts Electrochemiluminescence of Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Sensitive Detection of HBV DNA

Owing to excellent catalytic activity, single-atom catalysts (SACs) have recently attracted considerable research interest in the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) field. However, the applications of SACs are mostly limited to conventional luminol ECL system. Hence, it is necessary to explore the application of SACs in more ECL systems. In this work, nickel single-atom catalysts (Ni SACs) were successfully applied in the graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)-H2O2 ECL system to significantly enhance its cathodic emission. Notably, g-C3N4 acted not only as an ECL luminophore but also as a support to anchor Ni SACs. Ni SACs can significantly activate H2O2 to produce abundant OH• radicals for enhancing the cathodic ECL emission of g-C3N4. Ni SACs-anchored g-C3N4 (Ni SACs@g-C3N4) had a 10-fold enhanced ECL intensity as compared to g-C3N4. Finally, the Ni SACs@g-C3N4-H2O2 ECL system was developed to detect hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA by incorporating an entropy-driven DNA walking machine-assisted CRISPR-Cas12a amplification strategy. The constructed biosensor exhibited excellent detection performance for HBV DNA with a limit of detection as low as 17 aM. This work puts forward a new idea for enhancing the cathodic ECL of g-C3N4-H2O2 and expands the application of SACs in the ECL system.

Selenium and nitrogen co-doped carbon dots with highly efficient electrochemiluminescence for ultrasensitive detection of microRNA

In this work, selenium and nitrogen co-doped carbon dots (SeN-CDs) possessing highly efficient electrochemiluminescence (ECL) and excellent biocompatibility were synthesized as a new emitter with S2O82- as a coreactant for constructing a biosensor to detect microRNA-221 (miRNA-221) sensitively. Notably, the SeN-CDs exhibited superior ECL performance compared with the N-doped CDs, in which selenium with excellent redox activity served as a coreaction accelerator for facilitating the electroreduction of S2O82- to significantly improve ECL efficiency. Furthermore, target-induced T7 exonuclease (T7 Exo)-assisted double cycle amplification strategy could convert traces of target miRNA-221 into large amounts of output DNA to capture three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures (DTN-Au NPs-DOX-Fc) loaded with large amounts of ECL signal quencher. The constructed biosensor could realize ultrasensitive detection of miRNA-221 and has a low detection limit reaching 2.3 aM, with a successful application to detect miRNA-221 in lysate of Hela and MHCC97-L cancer cell. This work explored a novel method to strengthen the ECL performance of CDs to construct an ECL biosensing platform with sensitive detecting of biomarkers and disease diagnosis.

Hairpin DNA-based electrochemical amplification strategy for miRNA sensing by using single gold nanoelectrodes

A new sensor has been developed to detect miRNA-15 using nanoelectrodes and a hairpin DNA-based electrochemical amplification technique. By utilizing a complex DNA cylinder connected with hairpin DNA1, the sensor is able to absorb more methylene blue (MB) than simple double-stranded DNA. Another hairpin DNA2 is modified on an Au nanoelectrode surface and, when miRNA-15 is introduced, it triggers a chain reaction. This reaction unlocks two hairpins alternatively to polymerize into a complex structure that attaches more MB. The miRNA-15 is then replaced by DNA1 due to strand displacement reactions and continues to react with the next DNA2 to achieve circular amplification. The electrochemical signal from MB oxidation has a linear relationship with the miRNA-15 concentrations, making it possible to detect miRNA-15. Moreover, this method can be readily adapted for the detection of various other miRNA species. The newly devised nanosensor holds promising applications for the in vivo detection of miRNA-15 within biological systems, which is achieved by leveraging the advantageous characteristics of nanoelectrodes, including their low resistance-capacitance time constant, rapid mass transfer kinetics, and small diameter.

Europium-Functionalized Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Efficient Chemiluminescence Detection of Singlet Oxygen

Enhancing the sensitivity and selectivity of chemiluminescence (CL) sensors for detecting chemical species in complex samples poses a significant challenge in nanoparticle surface engineering. Graphitic carbon nitride (CN) shows promise but suffers from weak CL intensity and unknown luminescence mechanisms. In this study, we propose a nitrogen defect strategy to enhance the CL efficiency of europium-functionalized graphitic carbon nitride (Eu-CNNPs). By controlling the dosage of the europium modification, we can adjust the nitrogen defect content to reduce the energy gap and improve the CL performance. Remarkably, Eu-CNNPs with rich nitrogen defects exhibit strong chemiluminescence emission specifically for singlet oxygen (1O2) without responding to other reactive oxygen species (ROS). Building upon this finding, we developed a direct, selective, and sensitive CL sensing platform for 1O2 in PM2.5 and monitored 1O2 production in photosensitizers without interference from metal ions. Through extensive experiments, we attribute the 1O2-driven CL response to the presence of abundant nitrogen defects in the CN material, accelerating electron transfer and yielding a high generation of 1O2. Furthermore, chemiluminescence resonance energy transfer (CRET) between (1O2)2* (1O2 dimeric aggregate) and Eu-CNNPs contributes to strong CL emission. This work provides insights into enhancing the CL performance of CN and offers new possibilities for advancing the practical analysis of nanomaterials using the intriguing mechanism of nitrogen defects.

Array electrochemiluminescence device with ultra-high sensitivity and selectivity for rapid visualized monitoring of trace radon in environment

The World Health Organization has reported radioactive Rn gas as the second leading cause of lung cancer and gives an extreme limit to indoor Radon (Rn) concentration as 100 Bq/m³. To realize rapid and accurate Rn monitoring, we report an efficient visualized electrochemiluminescence (ECL) device for Rn detection with the lowest limit of detection (0.9 Bq/m³/3.6 Bq h m^-3) compared to known Rn detection methods and the shortest measurement time (less than 5 h) among non-pump methods. In detail, an efficient Rn probe is prepared by Au nanoparticles, Pb²⁺ aptamer, as well as NH₂-ssDNA co-reactant and then modified on ITO electrodes to obtain Rn detection devices. With tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II)chloride (Ru(bpy)₃Cl₂) as an ECL emitter, the devices can exhibit ultra-high sensitivity and selectivity to trace Rn in environment via the ECL quenching caused by ²¹⁰Pb, the relatively stable decay product of Rn. Furthermore, ECL imaging technology can be applied to realize the visualized Rn detection. An efficient up-response ECL detector was also invented to support this detection device to achieve accurate Rn detection in environment. This work reports noble gas ECL detection for the first time and provides an efficient strategy for rapid and accurate monitoring of trace Rn in environment.

High-Density N-Vacancy-Induced Multipath Electrochemiluminescence Improvement of 3D g-C3N4 for Ultrasensitive MiRNA-222 Analysis

Using dissolved O₂ as the cathodic co-reactant of three-dimensional (3D) g-C₃N₄ is a convenient method to improve the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) signal, but it still suffers the disadvantages of limited luminous efficiency of 3D g-C₃N₄ and low content, low reactivity, and instability of dissolved O₂. Here, N vacancy with high density was first introduced into the structure of 3D g-C₃N₄ (3D g-C₃N₄-NV), which could conveniently realize multipath ECL improvement by simultaneously solving the above shortcomings effectively. Specifically, N vacancy could change the electronic structure of 3D g-C₃N₄ to broaden its band gap, increase fluorescence (FL) lifetime, and accelerate electron transfer rate, obviously improving the luminous efficiency of 3D g-C₃N₄. Meanwhile, N vacancy made the excitation potential of 3D g-C₃N₄-NV to shift from -1.3 to -0.6 V, effectively weakening the electrode passivation. Moreover, the adsorption capacity of 3D g-C₃N₄-NV was obviously enhanced, which could make the dissolved O₂ enrich around 3D g-C₃N₄-NV. And massive active NV sites of 3D g-C₃N₄-NV could promote O₂ to more efficiently convert to reactive oxygen species (ROS) that were key intermediates in ECL generation. Using the newly proposed 3D g-C₃N₄-NV-dissolved O₂ system as an ECL emitter, an ultrasensitive target conversion biosensor was constructed for miRNA-222 detection. The fabricated ECL biosensor exhibited satisfactory analytical performance for miRNA-222 with a detection limit of 16.6 aM. The strategy achieved multipath ECL improvement by introducing high-density N vacancy simply in the 3D structure of g-C₃N₄ and could open a new horizon for developing a high-performance ECL system.

Highly Efficient Wavelength-Resolved Electrochemiluminescence of Carbon Nitride Films for Ultrasensitive Multiplex MicroRNA Detection

The development of electrochemiluminescence (ECL) emitters of different colors with high ECL efficiency (Φ_ECL) is appealing yet challenging for ultrasensitive multiplexed bioassays. Herein, we report the synthesis of highly efficient polymeric carbon nitride (CN) films with fine-tuned ECL emission from blue to green (410, 450, 470, and 525 nm) using the precursor crystallization method. More importantly, naked eye-observable and significantly enhanced ECL emission was achieved, and the cathodic Φ_ECL values were ca. 112, 394, 353, and 251 times those of the aqueous Ru(bpy)₃Cl₂/K₂S₂O₈ reference. Mechanism studies showed that the density of surface-trapped electrons, the associated nonradiative decay pathways, and electron-hole recombination kinetics were crucial factors for the high Φ_ECL of CN. Based on high Φ_ECL and different colors of ECL emission, the wavelength-resolved multiplexing ECL biosensor was constructed to simultaneously detect miRNA-21 and miRNA-141 with superior low detection limits of 0.13 fM and 25.17 aM, respectively. This work provides a facile method to synthesize wavelength-resolved ECL emitters based on metal-free CN polymers with high Φ_ECL for multiplexed bioassays.

In situ detection of miRNA-21 in MCF-7 cell-derived extracellular vesicles using the red blood cell membrane vesicle strategy

In this work, we constructed a novel membrane fusion strategy for extracellular vesicles (EVs) and red blood cell membrane vesicles (RVs). A nanoscale space is formed, which can improve the efficiency of the probe reaction with miRNA-21, which allows the in situ fluorescence detection of miRNA-21 in EVs.