1
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Swavey S, Wright A. Electropolymerization on ITO-Coated Glass Slides of a Series of π-Extended BODIPY Dyes with Redox-Active Meso-Substituents. Molecules 2023; 28:8101. [PMID: 38138589 PMCID: PMC10745556 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28248101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
A series of meso-carbazole and meso-pyrene boron dipyrromethene(BDP) dyes have been synthesized using a two-step method. This simplified synthetic method did not require catalysts or oxidizing agents. Solution spectroscopic and electrochemical studies indicate that the HOMO and LUMO energies are dependent on the extent of π-conjugation associated with the pyrroles. Solution electrochemistry of the dyes in chloroform reveal film formation onto glassy carbon electrodes. Electrolysis of chloroform solutions of the dyes using indium tin oxide (ITO) glass slides as the working electrode show, using UV/vis spectroscopy, the formation of films. For two of the dyes, the BODIPY structure stays in tact upon electrolysis, exhibiting sharp absorption peaks on the ITO slides similar to that observed for the same dyes in solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn Swavey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Dayton, Dayton, OH 45469, USA;
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2
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Incorporating Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Chronoamperometry to Enhance Manganese Detection Stability in Drinking Water. Electrochim Acta 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2023.142156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
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3
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Wu Z, Rehman A, Zhang Z, Papautsky I. Automatic Microtitrator for Small Volume Samples. ACS MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AU 2022; 2:430-438. [PMID: 36281296 PMCID: PMC9585638 DOI: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.2c00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Electroanalytical sensors for point-of-care biomedical or point-of-use environmental sample analysis are gaining popularity due to low limits of detection, ease of miniaturization, convenience, and ability to work with small sample volumes. Since pH must be tightly controlled for optimum electrochemical performance, adjustment of pH in these samples is often a necessity. Yet manual titration is time-consuming and can be especially challenging for small volumes. End point determination can also be difficult. Current commercial automatic pH titrators are generally designed for large volume (>1 mL) batch titrations, while the existing microvolume titrators are semiautomatic at best, still relying on multiple manual steps. To address the gap, we developed an automatic microtitration system suitable for small volume samples. The system was validated using digested whole blood microsamples, successfully demonstrating accurate and rapid pH adjustment for samples as small as 100 μL. The simple modular construction of the system makes it compatible with acid washing for trace metal detection and other cleaning or sample preparation steps. The electrochemical detection of manganese heavy metal in blood at the parts per billion level showed no detectable contamination induced by the system. Ultimately, our simple, accurate, user-friendly automatic microtitration system can be used in the pH adjustment of microvolume samples and can potentially be extended to other pH end point analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhizhen Wu
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, University of
Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
| | - Abid Rehman
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of Illinois
Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Zhehao Zhang
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, University of
Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
| | - Ian Papautsky
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, University of
Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
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4
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Vanadium: A Review of Different Extraction Methods to Evaluate Bioavailability and Speciation. MINERALS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/min12050642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The excessive input of heavy metals such as vanadium (V) into the environment has been one of the consequences of global industrial development. Excessive exposure to V can pose a potential threat to ecological safety and human health. Due to the heterogeneous composition and reactivity of the various elements in soils and sediments, quantitative analysis of the chemical speciation of V in different environmental samples is very complicated. The analysis of V chemical speciation can further reveal the bioavailability of V and accurately quantify its ecotoxicity. This is essential for assessing for exposure and for controlling ecological risks of V. Although the current investigation technologies for the chemical speciation of V have grown rapidly, the lack of comprehensive comparisons and systematic analyses of these types of technologies impedes a more comprehensive understanding of ecosystem safety and human health risks. In this review, we studied the chemical and physical extraction methods for V from multiple perspectives, such as technological, principle-based, and efficiency-based, and their application to the evaluation of V bioavailability. By sorting out the advantages and disadvantages of the current technologies, the future demand for the in situ detection of trace heavy metals such as V can be met and the accuracy of heavy metal bioavailability prediction can be improved, which will be conducive to development in the fields of environmental protection policy and risk management.
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5
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Wu Z, Heineman WR, Haynes EN, Papautsky I. Electrochemical Determination of Manganese in Whole Blood with Indium Tin Oxide Electrode. JOURNAL OF THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY 2022; 169:057508. [PMID: 35755409 PMCID: PMC9229665 DOI: 10.1149/1945-7111/ac6a19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we demonstrate accurate and precise measurement of manganese (Mn) concentration in human whole blood with indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode using square wave stripping voltammetry. While an essential trace metal for human health, elevated levels of Mn due to environmental or occupational exposure have been associated with severe neuromotor dysfunction characterized by parkinsonism and cognitive dysfunction making the monitoring of Mn in whole blood necessary. Pediatric populations are particularly susceptible to Mn given their developing brain and potential long-term impacts on neurodevelopment. The current gold standard for whole blood Mn measurements is by ICP-MS, which is costly and time consuming. The electrochemical detection with ITO working electrode in this work showed a limit of detection of 0.5 μg l-1 and a linear range of 5 to 500 μg l-1, which encompasses the physiological Mn levels in human whole blood (5-18 μg l-1). Our results of Mn measurement in whole blood show an average precision of 96.5% and an average accuracy of 90.3% compared to ICP-MS for both the normal range (5-18 μg l-1) and the elevated levels (>36 μg l-1) that require medical intervention. These results demonstrate the feasibility of Mn measurements in human blood with electrochemical sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhizhen Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Illinois Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - William R Heineman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA
| | - Erin N Haynes
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine and Environmental Health, University of Kentucky, Kentucky 40536, USA
| | - Ian Papautsky
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Illinois Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
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6
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Mc Eleney C, Alves S, Mc Crudden D. Novel magneto-electrochemical determination of Mn(II). J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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7
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Kaur N, Kaur R, Kaur R, Rana S. Synthesis of novel benzothiazole based fluorescent and redox-active organic nanoparticles for their application as selective and sensitive recognition of Fe3+ ions. INORG CHEM COMMUN 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.inoche.2021.108648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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8
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Boselli E, Wu Z, Friedman A, Henn BC, Papautsky I. Validation of Electrochemical Sensor for Determination of Manganese in Drinking Water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:7501-7509. [PMID: 34009956 PMCID: PMC10704915 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c05929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Manganese (Mn) is an essential nutrient for metabolic functions, yet excessive exposure can lead to neurological disease in adults and neurodevelopmental deficits in children. Drinking water represents one of the routes of excessive Mn exposure. Both natural enrichment from rocks and soil, and man-made contamination can pollute groundwater that supplies drinking water for a substantial fraction of the U.S. population. Conventional methods for Mn monitoring in drinking water are costly and involve a long turn-around time. Recent advancements in electrochemical sensing, however, have led to the development of miniature sensors for Mn determination. These sensors rely on a cathodic stripping voltammetry electroanalytical technique on a miniaturized platinum working electrode. In this study, we validate these electrochemical sensors for the determination of Mn concentrations in drinking water against the standard method using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Drinking water samples (n = 78) in the 0.03 ppb to 5.3 ppm range were analyzed. Comparisons with ICP-MS yielded 100% agreement, ∼70% accuracy, and ∼91% precision. We envision the use of our system for rapid and inexpensive point-of-use identification of Mn levels in drinking water, which is especially valuable for frequent monitoring where contamination is present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Boselli
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL
| | - Zhizhen Wu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL
| | - Alexa Friedman
- Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Birgit Claus Henn
- Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Ian Papautsky
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL
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9
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Development of a sequential injection analysis device and its application for the determination of Mn(II) in water. Talanta 2020; 211:120752. [PMID: 32070578 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A sequential injection analysis device has been developed and applied for the automated determination of Mn(II) in environmental water samples. Differential pulse cathodic stripping voltammetry is selected as the electrochemical detection method. The device consists of several electronic equipment. The electrochemical flow cell was designed for replacing the traditional three-electrode system and introducing high reproducibility. An electrochemical analyzer saddled with laboratory-programmed software written by Embarcadero Delphi 10.2. For higher current response, various determination parameters such as the flow rate, the medium pH, the deposition potential and the thickness of gasket in the electrochemical flow cell have been optimized. Under the optimal conditions, the detection limit (3σ/slope) of 0.63 μg L-1 and a calibration curve (R2 = 0.9987) of current response and Mn(II) concentration from 2.5 μg L-1 to 200 μg L-1 could be achieved. The device was successfully applied to the determination of trace Mn(II) in environmental water samples, and in continuous real-time monitoring of Mn(II) variations in tap water for 14 days. The results are consistent with the reference method and the average recovery is found to be 95.2%-101.4%. The device shows high sensitivity and reproducibility in the determination of Mn(II), and presents a great potential for on-site and real-time detection of metal ions where rapid, low-cost and low-volume analysis is required.
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10
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Rocha DP, Foster CW, Munoz RAA, Buller GA, Keefe EM, Banks CE. Trace manganese detection via differential pulse cathodic stripping voltammetry using disposable electrodes: additively manufactured nanographite electrochemical sensing platforms. Analyst 2020; 145:3424-3430. [DOI: 10.1039/d0an00018c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing is a promising technology for the rapid and economical fabrication of portable electroanalytical devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego P. Rocha
- Faculty of Science and Engineering
- Manchester Metropolitan University
- Manchester
- UK
- Institute of Chemistry
| | | | | | - Gary A. Buller
- Faculty of Science and Engineering
- Manchester Metropolitan University
- Manchester
- UK
| | - Edmund M. Keefe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering
- Manchester Metropolitan University
- Manchester
- UK
| | - Craig E. Banks
- Faculty of Science and Engineering
- Manchester Metropolitan University
- Manchester
- UK
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11
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Joca JFS, Felix FS, Angnes L. Ultrasonic-Assisted Digestion of Cement and Clinker Samples for the Determination of Manganese by Square Wave Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry. ANAL LETT 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2019.1695813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jhonny F. S. Joca
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fabiana S. Felix
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, Brazil
| | - Lúcio Angnes
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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12
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Ensch M, Wehring B, Landis GD, Garratt E, Becker MF, Schuelke T, Rusinek CA. Indium Tin Oxide Film Characteristics for Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:16991-17000. [PMID: 30932470 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b22157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The combination of conductivity, optical transparency, and wide anodic potential window has driven significant interest in indium tin oxide (ITO) as an electrode material for electrochemical measurements. More recently, ITO has been applied to the detection of trace metals using cathodic stripping voltammetry (CSV), specifically manganese (Mn). However, the optimization of ITO fabrication for a voltammetric method such as CSV is yet to be reported, nor have the microstructural properties of ITO been investigated for CSV. Furthermore, CSV does not require optical transparency, thereby allowing nontransparent substrates to be used for deposition. This enables microfabrication procedures to be expanded and simplified compared to glass or quartz. Combining this with the profound importance of sensitive, selective detection of toxic metal ions in environmentally and biologically relevant samples makes ITO especially attractive. In this work, we report a thorough investigation of ITO deposition and processing on silicon (Si) substrates for CSV analysis using Mn as the model analyte. Several ITO process parameters were examined such as heated deposition and post-process annealing. Each ITO film was characterized using a variety of surface, bulk (X-ray diffraction), and electrochemical measurements. Although each ITO film type showed electrochemical activity, the heated and annealed (HA) ITO fabrication process yielded superior results for Mn CSV; a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.1 ppb (1.8 nM) was obtained. This work exemplifies new applications of ITO as an electrode material while providing a baseline for trace detection of toxic metals and other contaminants amenable to detection by CSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Ensch
- Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies , Fraunhofer USA, Incorporation , East Lansing , Michigan 48824-1226 , United States
| | - Bettina Wehring
- Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies , Fraunhofer USA, Incorporation , East Lansing , Michigan 48824-1226 , United States
| | - Greg D Landis
- Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies , Fraunhofer USA, Incorporation , East Lansing , Michigan 48824-1226 , United States
| | | | - Michael F Becker
- Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies , Fraunhofer USA, Incorporation , East Lansing , Michigan 48824-1226 , United States
| | - Thomas Schuelke
- Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies , Fraunhofer USA, Incorporation , East Lansing , Michigan 48824-1226 , United States
| | - Cory A Rusinek
- Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies , Fraunhofer USA, Incorporation , East Lansing , Michigan 48824-1226 , United States
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13
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Deshmukh S, Sankaran KJ, Korneychuk S, Verbeeck J, Mclaughlin J, Haenen K, Roy SS. Nanostructured nitrogen doped diamond for the detection of toxic metal ions. Electrochim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2018.07.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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14
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Branch SD, Lines AM, Lynch J, Bello JM, Heineman WR, Bryan SA. Optically Transparent Thin-Film Electrode Chip for Spectroelectrochemical Sensing. Anal Chem 2017; 89:7324-7332. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b00258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shirmir D. Branch
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221-0172, United States
| | - Amanda M. Lines
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - John Lynch
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221-0172, United States
| | - Job M. Bello
- EIC Laboratories Inc., Norwood, Massachusetts 02062, United States
| | - William R. Heineman
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221-0172, United States
| | - Samuel A. Bryan
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
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15
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Rusinek CA, Kang W, Nahan K, Hawkins M, Quartermaine C, Stastny A, Bange A, Papautsky I, Heineman WR. Determination of Manganese in Whole Blood by Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry with Indium Tin Oxide. ELECTROANAL 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201700137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cory A. Rusinek
- Department of Chemistry; University of Cincinnati; Cincinnati, OH 45221-0172 USA
- Fraunhofer USA; Inc. Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies; East Lansing, MI 48824-1226
| | - Wenjing Kang
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computing Systems; University of Cincinnati; Cincinnati, OH 45221-0030 USA
| | - Keaton Nahan
- Department of Chemistry; University of Cincinnati; Cincinnati, OH 45221-0172 USA
| | - Megan Hawkins
- Department of Chemistry; Xavier University; Cincinnati, OH 45207-4221, USA
| | | | - Angela Stastny
- Department of Chemistry; University of Cincinnati; Cincinnati, OH 45221-0172 USA
| | - Adam Bange
- Department of Chemistry; Xavier University; Cincinnati, OH 45207-4221, USA
| | - Ian Papautsky
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computing Systems; University of Cincinnati; Cincinnati, OH 45221-0030 USA
- Department of Bioengineering; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago, IL 60607-7161 USA
| | - William R. Heineman
- Department of Chemistry; University of Cincinnati; Cincinnati, OH 45221-0172 USA
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16
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Deshmukh S, Kandasamy G, Upadhyay RK, Bhattacharya G, Banerjee D, Maity D, Deshusses MA, Roy SS. Terephthalic acid capped iron oxide nanoparticles for sensitive electrochemical detection of heavy metal ions in water. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2017.01.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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17
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Kang W, Rusinek C, Bange A, Haynes E, Heineman WR, Papautsky I. Determination of manganese by cathodic stripping voltammetry on a microfabricated platinum thin-film electrode. ELECTROANAL 2017; 29:686-695. [PMID: 28983182 PMCID: PMC5624726 DOI: 10.1002/elan.201600679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we report on the determination of trace manganese (Mn) using cathodic stripping voltammetry (CSV) using a microfabricated sensor with a Pt thin-film working electrode. While an essential trace metal for human health, prolonged exposure to Mn tends to gradually impair our neurological system. The potential sources of Mn exposure make it necessary to monitor the concentration in various sample matrices. Previous work by us and others suggested CSV as an effective method for measuring trace Mn. The analytical performance metrics were characterized and optimized, leading to a calculated limit of detection (LOD) of 16.3 nM (0.9 ppb) in pH 5.5, 0.2 M acetate buffer. Further, we successfully validated Mn determination in surface water with ~90% accuracy and >97% precision as compared with ICP-MS "gold standard" measurement. Ultimately, with stable, accurate and precise electrochemical performance, this Pt sensor permits rapid monitoring of Mn in environmental samples, and could potentially be used for point-of-use measurements if coupled with portable instrumentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Kang
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computing Systems, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0030
| | - Cory Rusinek
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0172
| | - Adam Bange
- Department of Chemistry, Xavier University, Cincinnati, OH 45207-4221
| | - Erin Haynes
- Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0056
| | - William R. Heineman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0172
| | - Ian Papautsky
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
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18
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Ojo K, Zhao D, Rusinek CA, Pixley SK, Heineman WR. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetric Determination of Cerium Using Indium Tin Oxide (ITO). ELECTROANAL 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201600714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kolade Ojo
- Department of Chemistry University of Cincinnati P.O. Box 210172 Cincinnati OH 45221–0172 USA
| | - Daoli Zhao
- Department of Chemistry University of Cincinnati P.O. Box 210172 Cincinnati OH 45221–0172 USA
| | - Cory A. Rusinek
- Fraunhofer USA, Inc. Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies East Lansing, MI 48824-1226 United States
| | - Sarah K. Pixley
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology University of Cincinnati Cincinnati OH 45267–0576 USA
| | - William R. Heineman
- Department of Chemistry University of Cincinnati P.O. Box 210172 Cincinnati OH 45221–0172 USA
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