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Raju C, Elpa DP, Urban PL. Automation and Computerization of (Bio)sensing Systems. ACS Sens 2024; 9:1033-1048. [PMID: 38363106 PMCID: PMC10964247 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c01887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Sensing systems necessitate automation to reduce human effort, increase reproducibility, and enable remote sensing. In this perspective, we highlight different types of sensing systems with elements of automation, which are based on flow injection and sequential injection analysis, microfluidics, robotics, and other prototypes addressing specific real-world problems. Finally, we discuss the role of computer technology in sensing systems. Automated flow injection and sequential injection techniques offer precise and efficient sample handling and dependable outcomes. They enable continuous analysis of numerous samples, boosting throughput, and saving time and resources. They enhance safety by minimizing contact with hazardous chemicals. Microfluidic systems are enhanced by automation to enable precise control of parameters and increase of analysis speed. Robotic sampling and sample preparation platforms excel in precise execution of intricate, repetitive tasks such as sample handling, dilution, and transfer. These platforms enhance efficiency by multitasking, use minimal sample volumes, and they seamlessly integrate with analytical instruments. Other sensor prototypes utilize mechanical devices and computer technology to address real-world issues, offering efficient, accurate, and economical real-time solutions for analyte identification and quantification in remote areas. Computer technology is crucial in modern sensing systems, enabling data acquisition, signal processing, real-time analysis, and data storage. Machine learning and artificial intelligence enhance predictions from the sensor data, supporting the Internet of Things with efficient data management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chamarthi
Maheswar Raju
- Department of Chemistry, National
Tsing Hua University 101, Section 2, Kuang-Fu Rd., Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
| | - Decibel P. Elpa
- Department of Chemistry, National
Tsing Hua University 101, Section 2, Kuang-Fu Rd., Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
| | - Pawel L. Urban
- Department of Chemistry, National
Tsing Hua University 101, Section 2, Kuang-Fu Rd., Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
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Eleney CM, Bradley M, Alves S, Crudden DM. Development of a low-cost semi-automated robotic orthophosphate system for batch analysis. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2022; 14:3444-3450. [PMID: 35993850 DOI: 10.1039/d2ay00906d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring the level of nutrients in soil and their availability for crops can be time-consuming or require expensive instrumentation. This work describes a low-cost (<€500) portable, semi-automated colourimetric orthophosphate (PO43-) analyser supplemented with 3D printed parts. Colour development was based on the phosphomolybdenum blue formation coupled with spectrophotometric detection using a low-cost LED-photodiode assembly. The batch analysis technique required only minimal autonomous additions of reagents to the reaction vessel. In addition, the reaction time was reduced with vigorous automated stirring of the small quantity of reactants. Continuous monitoring of the absorbance throughout the reaction also decreased contact time, eliminating the prerequisite of a blank and warm-up time, customarily associated with colourimetric measurements. The semi-automated Robotic Orthophosphate System (saROS) has a linear dynamic range between 10-750 μg L-1 P-PO43-, and a limit of detection of 3 μg L-1 P-PO43- with good repeatability (RSD of 2.4%). In addition to portability and low cost, the prototype is an accurate and reproducible device for measuring phosphorus in aquatic ecosystems and soil extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Mc Eleney
- Department of Life & Physical Sciences, Atlantic Technological University Donegal, Letterkenny, County Donegal, F92 FC93, Ireland.
| | - Martin Bradley
- Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Atlantic Technological University Donegal, Letterkenny, County Donegal, F92 FC93, Ireland
| | - Sheila Alves
- Teagasc, Crops Research Centre, Oak Park, Carlow R93 XE12, Ireland
| | - Denis Mc Crudden
- Department of Life & Physical Sciences, Atlantic Technological University Donegal, Letterkenny, County Donegal, F92 FC93, Ireland.
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Sakdaphetsiri K, Teanphonkrang S, Schulte A. Cheap and Sustainable Biosensor Fabrication by Enzyme Immobilization in Commercial Polyacrylic Acid/Carbon Nanotube Films. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:19347-19354. [PMID: 35721902 PMCID: PMC9202243 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c00925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Novel glucose biosensors were constructed by loading glucose oxidase (GOx) into the nanopores of homogenous carbon nanotube (CNT) films on the surface of Pt disk electrodes and trapping the enzyme by subsequent deposition of polyacrylic acid (PAA), forming PAA/GOx-CNT-modified Pt disks. In amperometric biosensing with anodic hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) detection at a potential of +600 mV, increasing electrolyte glucose concentrations produced instantaneous steps in the H2O2 oxidation current. Glucose biosensor amperometry was feasible down to 10 μM, with a sensitivity of about 34 μA mM-1 cm-2 and linear current response up to 5 mM. The biosensors reliably determined glucose concentrations in human serum and a beverage. Successful trials with PAA/GOx-CNT-modified screen-printed Pt electrode disks demonstrated the potential of this means of enzyme fixation in biosensor mass fabrication, which offers a unique combination of cheap availability of the two matrix constituents and sensor layer formation through simple drop-and-dry steps. PAA/GOx-CNT/Pt biosensors are green and user-friendly bioanalytical tools that do not need large budgets, special skills, or laboratory amenities for their production. Any user, from industrial, university, or school laboratories, even if inexperienced in biosensor construction, can prepare functional biosensors with GOx, as in these proof-of-principle studies, or with other redox enzymes, for clinical, environmental, pharmaceutical, or food sample analysis.
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Vranckx C, Lambricht L, Préat V, Cornu O, Dupont-Gillain C, Vander Straeten A. Layer-by-Layer Nanoarchitectonics Using Protein-Polyelectrolyte Complexes toward a Generalizable Tool for Protein Surface Immobilization. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2022; 38:5579-5589. [PMID: 35481352 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.2c00191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Layer-by-layer (LbL) self-assembly is an attractive method for the immobilization of macromolecules at interfaces. Integrating proteins in LbL thin films is however challenging due to their polyampholyte nature. Recently, we developed a method to integrate lysozyme into multilayers using protein-polyelectrolytes complexes (PPCs). In this work, we extended this method to a wide range of protein-polyelectrolyte combinations. We demonstrated the robustness and versatility of PPCs as building blocks. LL-37, insulin, lysozyme, and glucose oxidase were complexed with alginate, poly(styrenesulfonate), heparin, and poly(allylamine hydrochloride). The resulting PPCs were then LbL self-assembled with chitosan, PAH, and heparin. We demonstrated that multilayers built with PPCs are thicker compared to the LbL self-assembly of bare protein molecules. This is attributed to the higher mass of protein in the multilayers and/or the more hydrated state of the assemblies. PPCs enabled the self-assembly of proteins that could otherwise not be LbL assembled with a PE or with another protein. Furthermore, the results also show that LbL with PPCs enabled the construction of multilayers combining different proteins, highlighting the formation of multifunctional films. Importantly, we show that the adsorption behavior and thus the multilayer growth strongly depend on the nature of the protein and polyelectrolyte used. In this work, we elaborated a rationale to help and guide the use of PPCs for protein LbL assembly. It will therefore be beneficial to the many scientific communities willing to modify interfaces with hard-to-immobilize proteins and peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cédric Vranckx
- Institute of Condensed Matter and Nanosciences, Bio- and Soft Matter, Université catholique de Louvain, Place Louis Pasteur, 1 bte L4.01.10, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Laure Lambricht
- Louvain Drug Research Institute, Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Université catholique de Louvain, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Véronique Préat
- Louvain Drug Research Institute, Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Université catholique de Louvain, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Olivier Cornu
- Neuro-Musculo-Skeletal Pole, Experimental and Clinical Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
- Orthopaedic and Trauma Department, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Université catholique de Louvain, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Christine Dupont-Gillain
- Institute of Condensed Matter and Nanosciences, Bio- and Soft Matter, Université catholique de Louvain, Place Louis Pasteur, 1 bte L4.01.10, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Aurélien Vander Straeten
- Institute of Condensed Matter and Nanosciences, Bio- and Soft Matter, Université catholique de Louvain, Place Louis Pasteur, 1 bte L4.01.10, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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Almeida PLD, Lima LMA, Almeida LFD. A 3D-printed robotic system for fully automated multiparameter analysis of drinkable water samples. Anal Chim Acta 2021; 1169:338491. [PMID: 34088373 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This work describes a 3D-printed robotic system named RSAWA (robotic system for automatic water analysis) for fully automated water analysis. RSAWA consists of a robotic arm coupled to a syringe pump, temperature and conductivity sensors, a low-cost webcam as colorimetric detector, and a 96-well microplate placed on a 3D-printed platform. The robotic system is controlled by software and it performs all analytical procedures. RSAWA was applied to measure conductivity (CDT), pH, total alkalinity (TA), total hardness (TH), chloride (Cl-), nitrite (NO2-), total dissolved phosphorus (TP), and total iron (TI) in drinkable water samples. A simple circuit was designed for conductivity determinations, while colorimetric pH determinations were carried out using Hue values extracted from digital images and a pH universal indicator. HSV histograms were used to calculate Pearson's correlation coefficients, allowing the construction of accurate titration curves. In addition to achieving sample throughputs of 112 h-1 for TA and TH determinations and 92 h-1 for Cl- determinations, RSAWA produced 99.5% less waste than the corresponding reference methods during titrations. Colorimetric measurements were performed through RGB vector norms calculated from digital images were used as analytical signals. Limits of quantification (μg L-1) were 6.83, 13.0 and 1.5 mg L-1 for NO2-, TP, and TI determinations, respectively. Sample throughputs (samples h-1) were 83 for NO2- and TP and 72 for TI with a 98.5% reduction in waste generation. Thus, RSAWA is a low-cost, feasible, and environmentally friendly alternative to quickly and accurately determine several chemical and physicochemical parameters in aqueous samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Lemos de Almeida
- Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Do Sertão de Pernambuco, Campus Salgueiro, CEP, 56000-000, Salgueiro, Pernambuco, Brazil; Universidade Federal da Paraíba, CCEN, Departamento de Química, CEP, 58051-970, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Lidiane Macedo Alves Lima
- Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Departamento de Química, CEP, 52171-900, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Luciano Farias de Almeida
- Universidade Federal da Paraíba, CCEN, Departamento de Química, CEP, 58051-970, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil.
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Teanphonkrang S, Suginta W, Sucharitakul J, Fukamizo T, Chaiyen P, Schulte A. An electrochemical method for detecting the biomarker 4-HPA by allosteric activation of Acinetobacterbaumannii reductase C1 subunit. J Biol Chem 2021; 296:100467. [PMID: 33639166 PMCID: PMC8027283 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The C1 (reductase) subunit of 4-hydroxy-phenylacetate (4-HPA) 3-hydroxylase (HPAH) from the soil-based bacterium Acinetobacterbaumannii catalyzes NADH oxidation by molecular oxygen, with hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. 4-HPA is a potent allosteric modulator of C1, but also a known urinary biomarker for intestinal bacterial imbalance and for some cancers and brain defects. We thus envisioned that C1 could be used to facilitate 4-HPA detection. The proposed test protocol is simple and in situ and involves addition of NADH to C1 in solution, with or without 4-HPA, and direct acquisition of the H2O2 current with an immersed Prussian Blue–coated screen-printed electrode (PB-SPE) assembly. We confirmed that cathodic H2O2 amperometry at PB-SPEs is a reliable electrochemical assay for intrinsic and allosterically modulated redox enzyme activity. We further validated this approach for quantitative NADH electroanalysis and used it to evaluate the activation of NADH oxidation of C1 by 4-HPA and four other phenols. Using 4-HPA, the most potent effector, allosteric activation of C1 was related to effector concentration by a simple saturation function. The use of C1 for cathodic biosensor analysis of 4-HPA is the basis of the development of a simple and affordable clinical routine for assaying 4-HPA in the urine of patients with a related disease risk. Extension of this principle to work with other allosteric redox enzymes and their effectors is feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somjai Teanphonkrang
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, Thailand; School of Chemistry, Institute of Science, The Suranaree University of Technology (SUT), Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
| | - Wipa Suginta
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, Thailand
| | - Jeerus Sucharitakul
- Department of Biochemistry and Research Unit in Integrative Immuno-Microbial Biochemistry and Bioresponsive Nanomaterials, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tamo Fukamizo
- Department of Advanced Bioscience, Kindai University, Nara, Japan
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, Thailand
| | - Albert Schulte
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong, Thailand; School of Chemistry, Institute of Science, The Suranaree University of Technology (SUT), Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand.
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Ruff A, Jaikaew W, Khunkaewla P, Schuhmann W, Schulte A. Drug Release from Polymer Thin Films and Gel Pellets: Insights from Programmed Microplate Electroanalysis. Chempluschem 2020; 85:627-633. [PMID: 32237228 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.202000129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Robotic electroanalysis in 24-well microplates was used to determine Paracetamol (PCT) release from thin films of chitosan and two pH-sensitive synthetic polymers as well as blends of the polymers with each other and with agarose. Square-wave voltammograms were recorded automatically in a potential window of 0.35 V-0.85 V vs. Ag/AgCl/0.1 M KCl and their evaluation revealed time-dependent PCT release into acidic and basic media. Comparison of the release profiles showed that pure chitosan layers released PCT quickly in a single-phase process while liberation from synthetic polymer thin films was slower with a sigmoidal shape at pH 1.2 and pH 8.0 with a maximum release of PCT after approximately 150 and 140 min, respectively. The release profile from thicker agarose films was between those of the thin films. Agarose blended with chitosan or synthetic polymers formed films with biphasic release behavior. Chitosan linearized the initial section of the release profile in chitosan/polymer blends. The automated procedure for release testing offers the advantage of low-cost, labor-effective and error-free data acquisition. The procedure has been validated as a useful microplate assay option for release profile testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Ruff
- Analytical Chemistry - Center for Electrochemical Sciences (CES), Faculty for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Wajee Jaikaew
- School of Chemistry, Biochemistry - Electrochemistry Research Unit Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, 30000, Thailand
| | - Panida Khunkaewla
- School of Chemistry, Biochemistry - Electrochemistry Research Unit Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, 30000, Thailand
| | - Wolfgang Schuhmann
- Analytical Chemistry - Center for Electrochemical Sciences (CES), Faculty for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Albert Schulte
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology, Rayong, 21210, Thailand
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Song M, Dang L, Long J, Hu C. Laser-Cut Polymer Tape Templates for Scalable Filtration Fabrication of User-Designed and Carbon-Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Sensors. ACS Sens 2018; 3:2518-2525. [PMID: 30403134 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.8b00639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
We report here a simple filtration method for the scalable fabrication of user-designed and carbon-nanomaterial-based electrode arrays using laser-cut poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) tape templates. This method can produce electrode arrays with high uniformity and low resistance from the dilute dispersions of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs). For these two carbon arrays, the SWNT array is demonstrated to possess several interesting properties, e.g., good mechanical properties, excellent flexibility, and favorable electrochemical behavior. Moreover, its porous structure enables the construction of a paperlike solid-state electrochemical sensor using Nafion electrolytes, which is suitable for the on-site monitoring of trace phenol pollutants in electrolyte-free water. Besides, an electrochemically addressable 36-zone sensor was constructed by this method. With the aid of an inexpensive 3D printer, the addressable sensor can achieve the semiautomatic and high-throughput evaluation of antioxidant capacity on a series of vegetables and fruits using a single-channel electrochemical analyzer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengmeng Song
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Lantu Dang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Juan Long
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Chengguo Hu
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
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Robotic microplate voltammetry for real-time hydrogel drug release testing. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1041:33-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 08/12/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Biosensing based on pencil graphite electrodes. Talanta 2018; 190:235-247. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.07.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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