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Tomohara K, Kusaba S, Masui M, Uchida T, Nambu H, Nose T. Ammonium carboxylates in the ammonia-Ugi reaction: one-pot synthesis of α,α-disubstituted amino acid derivatives including unnatural dipeptides. Org Biomol Chem 2024. [PMID: 39118586 DOI: 10.1039/d4ob00924j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
Despite the remarkable developments of the Ugi reaction and its variants, the use of ammonia in the Ugi reaction has long been recognized as impractical and unsuccessful. Indeed, the ammonia-Ugi reaction often requires harsh reaction conditions, such as heating and microwave irradiation, and competes with the Passerini reaction, thereby resulting in low yields. This study describes a robust and practical ammonia-Ugi reaction protocol. Using originally prepared ammonium carboxylates in trifluoroethanol, the ammonia-Ugi reaction proceeded at room temperature in high yields and showed a broad substrate scope, thus synthesizing a variety of α,α-disubstituted amino acid derivatives, including unnatural dipeptides. The reaction required no condensing agents and proceeded without racemization of the chiral stereocenter of α-amino acids. Furthermore, using this protocol, we quickly synthesized a novel dipeptide, D-Leu-Aic-NH-CH2Ph(p-F), which exhibited a potent inhibitory activity against α-chymotrypsin with a Ki value of 0.091 μM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Tomohara
- Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
- Faculty and Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, 1 Misasagishichono-cho, Yamashina-ku, Kyoto 607-8412, Japan.
| | - Satoru Kusaba
- Graduate School of Science, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan.
| | - Mana Masui
- Faculty and Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, 1 Misasagishichono-cho, Yamashina-ku, Kyoto 607-8412, Japan.
| | - Tatsuya Uchida
- Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
- Graduate School of Science, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan.
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Hisanori Nambu
- Faculty and Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, 1 Misasagishichono-cho, Yamashina-ku, Kyoto 607-8412, Japan.
| | - Takeru Nose
- Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
- Graduate School of Science, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan.
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2
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Dongrui Z, Miyamoto M, Yokoo H, Demizu Y. Innovative peptide architectures: advancements in foldamers and stapled peptides for drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2024; 19:699-723. [PMID: 38753534 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2024.2350568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Peptide foldamers play a critical role in pharmaceutical research and biomedical applications. This review highlights recent (post-2020) advancements in novel foldamers, synthetic techniques, and their applications in pharmaceutical research. AREAS COVERED The authors summarize the structures and applications of peptide foldamers such as α, β, γ-peptides, hydrocarbon-stapled peptides, urea-type foldamers, sulfonic-γ-amino acid foldamers, aromatic foldamers, and peptoids, which tackle the challenges of traditional peptide drugs. Regarding antimicrobial use, foldamers have shown progress in their potential against drug-resistant bacteria. In drug development, peptide foldamers have been used as drug delivery systems (DDS) and protein-protein interaction (PPI) inhibitors. EXPERT OPINION These structures exhibit resistance to enzymatic degradation, are promising for therapeutic delivery, and disrupt crucial PPIs associated with diseases such as cancer with specificity, versatility, and stability, which are useful therapeutic properties. However, the complexity and cost of their synthesis, along with the necessity for thorough safety and efficacy assessments, necessitate extensive research and cross-sector collaboration. Advances in synthesis methods, computational modeling, and targeted delivery systems are essential for fully realizing the therapeutic potential of foldamers and integrating them into mainstream medical treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhou Dongrui
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kawasaki, Japan
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Maho Miyamoto
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kawasaki, Japan
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Hidetomo Yokoo
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Yosuke Demizu
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kawasaki, Japan
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
- Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Science of Okayama University, Kita, Japan
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3
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Lessl AL, Pöhmerer J, Lin Y, Wilk U, Höhn M, Hörterer E, Wagner E, Lächelt U. mCherry on Top: A Positive Read-Out Cellular Platform for Screening DMD Exon Skipping Xenopeptide-PMO Conjugates. Bioconjug Chem 2023; 34:2263-2274. [PMID: 37991502 PMCID: PMC10739591 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.3c00408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
Phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMOs) are a special type of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) that can be used as therapeutic modulators of pre-mRNA splicing. Application of nucleic-acid-based therapeutics generally requires suitable delivery systems to enable efficient transport to intended tissues and intracellular targets. To identify potent formulations of PMOs, we established a new in vitro-in vivo screening platform based on mdx exon 23 skipping. Here, a new in vitro positive read-out system (mCherry-DMDEx23) is presented that is sensitive toward the PMO(Ex23) sequence mediating DMD exon 23 skipping and, in this model, functional mCherry expression. After establishment of the reporter system in HeLa cells, a set of amphiphilic, ionizable xenopeptides (XPs) was screened in order to identify potent carriers for PMO delivery. The identified best-performing PMO formulation with high splice-switching activity at nanomolar concentrations in vitro was then translated to in vivo trials, where exon 23 skipping in different organs of healthy BALB/c mice was confirmed. The predesigned in vitro-in vivo workflow enables evaluation of PMO(Ex23) carriers without change of the PMO sequence and formulation composition. Furthermore, the identified PMO-XP conjugate formulation was found to induce highly potent exon skipping in vitro and redistributed PMO activity in different organs in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Lina Lessl
- Pharmaceutical
Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy, LMU
Munich, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Jana Pöhmerer
- Pharmaceutical
Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy, LMU
Munich, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Yi Lin
- Pharmaceutical
Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy, LMU
Munich, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Ulrich Wilk
- Pharmaceutical
Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy, LMU
Munich, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Miriam Höhn
- Pharmaceutical
Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy, LMU
Munich, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Elisa Hörterer
- Pharmaceutical
Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy, LMU
Munich, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Ernst Wagner
- Pharmaceutical
Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy, LMU
Munich, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Center
for NanoScience (CeNS), LMU Munich, 80799 Munich, Germany
| | - Ulrich Lächelt
- Pharmaceutical
Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy, LMU
Munich, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Center
for NanoScience (CeNS), LMU Munich, 80799 Munich, Germany
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of
Vienna, Josef-Holaubek-Platz 2, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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4
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Ito T, Yokoo H, Kato T, Doi M, Demizu Y. Sculpting Secondary Structure of a Cyclic Peptide: Conformational Analysis of a Cyclic Hexapeptide Containing a Combination of l-Leu, d-Leu, and Aib Residues. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:44106-44111. [PMID: 38027316 PMCID: PMC10666233 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c06397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
We have previously reported that cyclo(l-Leu-d-Leu-Aib-l-Leu-d-Leu-Aib) (2), a cyclic hexapeptide consisting of heterochiral l-Leu and d-Leu (l-Leu-d-Leu) residues with achiral 2-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) residues, forms a figure-8 conformation. In this study, we newly designed cyclo(l-Leu-d-Leu-Aib-d-Leu-l-Leu-Aib)+ (4), an epimer of 2, and examined the conformational differences between 2 and 4 by X-ray crystallographic analysis. Peptide 4 formed a planar cyclic conformation with an antiparallel β-sheet hydrogen-bonding pattern. This investigation demonstrates the potential to manipulate the molecular conformation of cyclic peptides by simply arranging the l- and d-amino acids and emphasizes that diverse conformations can be obtained by using cyclic peptides. Harnessing cyclic peptides as platforms for distinct molecular structures is a promising approach to expanding the chemical space for various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahito Ito
- Division
of Organic Chemistry, National Institute
of Health Sciences, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
- Graduate
School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama
City University, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0027, Japan
| | - Hidetomo Yokoo
- Division
of Organic Chemistry, National Institute
of Health Sciences, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Takuma Kato
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical
University, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan
| | - Mitsunobu Doi
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical
University, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan
| | - Yosuke Demizu
- Division
of Organic Chemistry, National Institute
of Health Sciences, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
- Graduate
School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama
City University, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0027, Japan
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5
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Kadota K, Mikami T, Kohata A, Morimoto J, Sando S, Aikawa K, Okazoe T. Synthesis of Short Peptides with Perfluoroalkyl Side Chains and Evaluation of Their Cellular Uptake Efficiency. Chembiochem 2023; 24:e202300374. [PMID: 37430341 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
With an increasing demand for macromolecular biotherapeutics, the issue of their poor cell-penetrating abilities requires viable and relevant solutions. Herein, we report tripeptides bearing an amino acid with a perfluoroalkyl (RF ) group adjacent to the α-carbon. RF -containing tripeptides were synthesized and evaluated for their ability to transport a conjugated hydrophilic dye (Alexa Fluor 647) into the cells. RF -containing tripeptides with the fluorophore showed high cellular uptake efficiency and none of them were cytotoxic. Interestingly, we demonstrated that the absolute configuration of perfluoroalkylated amino acids (RF -AAs) affects not only nanoparticle formation but also the cell permeability of the tripeptides. These novel RF -containing tripeptides are potentially useful as short and noncationic cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Kadota
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0032, Japan
| | - Toshiki Mikami
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0032, Japan
| | - Ai Kohata
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0032, Japan
| | - Jumpei Morimoto
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Sando
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Kohsuke Aikawa
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0032, Japan
| | - Takashi Okazoe
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0032, Japan
- Yokohama Technical Center, AGC Inc., 1-1 Suehiro-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, 230-0045, Japan
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6
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Nag A, Mafi A, Das S, Yu MB, Alvarez-Villalonga B, Kim SK, Su Y, Goddard WA, Heath JR. Stereochemical engineering yields a multifunctional peptide macrocycle inhibitor of Akt2 by fine-tuning macrocycle-cell membrane interactions. Commun Chem 2023; 6:95. [PMID: 37202473 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-023-00890-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrocycle peptides are promising constructs for imaging and inhibiting extracellular, and cell membrane proteins, but their use for targeting intracellular proteins is typically limited by poor cell penetration. We report the development of a cell-penetrant high-affinity peptide ligand targeted to the phosphorylated Ser474 epitope of the (active) Akt2 kinase. This peptide can function as an allosteric inhibitor, an immunoprecipitation reagent, and a live cell immunohistochemical staining reagent. Two cell penetrant stereoisomers were prepared and shown to exhibit similar target binding affinities and hydrophobic character but 2-3-fold different rates of cell penetration. Experimental and computational studies resolved that the ligands' difference in cell penetration could be assigned to their differential interactions with cholesterol in the membrane. These results expand the tool kit for designing new chiral-based cell-penetrant ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arundhati Nag
- California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Amirhossein Mafi
- Materials and Process Simulation Center (139-74), California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Samir Das
- California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Mary Beth Yu
- California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | | | - Soo-Kyung Kim
- Materials and Process Simulation Center (139-74), California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Yapeng Su
- California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - William A Goddard
- Materials and Process Simulation Center (139-74), California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - James R Heath
- California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
- Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA, USA.
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7
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Liu H, Li Y, Du S, Wang C, Li Y, Cao R, Shi W, Liu S, He J. Studies on the Effect of Lipofectamine and Cell-Penetrating Peptide on the Properties of 10-23 DNAzyme. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28093942. [PMID: 37175352 PMCID: PMC10179765 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28093942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cationic polymeric materials and cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) were often used as the delivery vectors in the evaluation of nucleic acid therapeutics. 10-23 DNAzyme is a kind of potential antisense therapeutics by catalytic cleavage of the disease-related RNAs. Here, lipofectamine 2000 and Tat peptide were evaluated for their effect on the catalytic activity of 10-23 DNAzyme, with the observed rate constant, thermal stability, CD spectra, and PAGE analysis, with a duplex DNA mimicking DNAzyme-substrate as a control. It was shown that the cationic carriers had a negative effect on the catalytic performance of the 10-23 DNAzyme. Significantly, the destabilizing effect of the cationic carriers on the duplex formation was noteworthy, as a duplex formation is an essential prerequisite in the silencing mechanisms of antisense and RNAi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanhuan Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasurements, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Taiping 27, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Yang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasurements, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Taiping 27, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Shanshan Du
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasurements, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Taiping 27, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Chenhong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasurements, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Taiping 27, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Yuexiang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasurements, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Taiping 27, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Ruiyuan Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasurements, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Taiping 27, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Weiguo Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasurements, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Taiping 27, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Shihui Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Junlin He
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasurements, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Taiping 27, Beijing 100850, China
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8
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Hadjicharalambous A, Bournakas N, Newman H, Skynner MJ, Beswick P. Antimicrobial and Cell-Penetrating Peptides: Understanding Penetration for the Design of Novel Conjugate Antibiotics. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:1636. [PMID: 36421280 PMCID: PMC9686638 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11111636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are short oligopeptides that can penetrate the bacterial inner and outer membranes. Together with cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), they are called membrane active peptides; peptides which can translocate across biological membranes. Over the last fifty years, attempts have been made to understand the molecular features that drive the interactions of membranes with membrane active peptides. This review examines the features of a membrane these peptides exploit for translocation, as well as the physicochemical characteristics of membrane active peptides which are important for translocation. Moreover, it presents examples of how these features have been used in recent years to create conjugates consisting of a membrane active peptide, called a "vector", attached to either a current or novel antibiotic, called a "cargo" or "payload". In addition, the review discusses what properties may contribute to an ideal peptide vector able to deliver cargoes across the bacterial outer membrane as the rising issue of antimicrobial resistance demands new strategies to be employed to combat this global public health threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Hadjicharalambous
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK
- BicycleTx Limited, Portway Building, Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GS, UK
| | - Nikolaos Bournakas
- BicycleTx Limited, Portway Building, Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GS, UK
| | - Hector Newman
- BicycleTx Limited, Portway Building, Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GS, UK
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Michael J. Skynner
- BicycleTx Limited, Portway Building, Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GS, UK
| | - Paul Beswick
- BicycleTx Limited, Portway Building, Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GS, UK
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9
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Porosk L, Langel Ü. Approaches for evaluation of novel CPP-based cargo delivery systems. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1056467. [PMID: 36339538 PMCID: PMC9634181 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1056467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) can be broadly defined as relatively short synthetic, protein derived or chimeric peptides. Their most remarkable property is their ability to cross cell barriers and facilitate the translocation of cargo, such as drugs, nucleic acids, peptides, small molecules, dyes, and many others across the plasma membrane. Over the years there have been several approaches used, adapted, and developed for the evaluation of CPP efficacies as delivery systems, with the fluorophore attachment as the most widely used approach. It has become progressively evident, that the evaluation method, in order to lead to successful outcome, should concede with the specialties of the delivery. For characterization and assessment of CPP-cargo a combination of research tools of chemistry, physics, molecular biology, engineering, and other fields have been applied. In this review, we summarize the diverse, in silico, in vitro and in vivo approaches used for evaluation and characterization of CPP-based cargo delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ly Porosk
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery, Institute of Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Ülo Langel
- Laboratory of Drug Delivery, Institute of Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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