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Tsai HC, Huang CH, Tu LH. TPE conjugated islet amyloid polypeptide probe for detection of peptide oligomers. Biophys Chem 2024; 304:107129. [PMID: 37948788 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2023.107129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), also known as amylin, is a polypeptide hormone co-secreted with insulin by pancreatic β-cells. In general, IAPP is soluble and lacks a defined structure. However, under certain conditions, these peptides tend to aggregate into soluble oligomers, eventually forming insoluble amyloid fibrils with typical cross-β-sheet structures. Amylin aggregates, therefore, have been regarded as one of the hallmarks of type II diabetes (T2D). Among these aggregated species, oligomers were shown to exhibit significant cytotoxicity, leading to impaired β-cell function and reduced β-cell mass. Monitoring of oligomer appearance during IAPP fibrillation is of particular interest. In this study, we successfully grafted an aggregation-induced emission molecule, tetraphenylethylene (TPE), at the N-terminus of IAPP. By mixing a small amount of TPE-labeled IAPP with unlabeled IAPP, we were able to detect an increase in TPE fluorescence during the nucleation phase of IAPP aggregation in vitro. It may enable real-time monitoring of IAPP oligomer formation and is further applied in the diagnosis of T2D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Chieh Tsai
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Hong Huang
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Hsien Tu
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan.
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2
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Fortier M, Côté-Cyr M, Nguyen V, Babych M, Nguyen PT, Gaudreault R, Bourgault S. Contribution of the 12–17 hydrophobic region of islet amyloid polypeptide in self-assembly and cytotoxicity. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:1017336. [PMID: 36262476 PMCID: PMC9573943 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1017336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) is a 37-residue aggregation-prone peptide hormone whose deposition as insoluble fibrils in the islets of Langerhans is associated with type II diabetes. Therapeutic interventions targeting IAPP amyloidogenesis, which contributes to pancreatic β-cell degeneration, remain elusive owing to the lack of understanding of the self-assembly mechanisms and of the quaternary proteospecies mediating toxicity. While countless studies have investigated the contributions of the 20–29 amyloidogenic core in self-assembly, IAPP central region, i.e. positions 11 to 19, has been less studied, notwithstanding its potential key role in oligomerization. In this context, the present study aimed at investigating the physicochemical and conformational properties driving IAPP self-assembly and associated cytotoxicity. Computational tools and all-atom molecular dynamics simulation suggested that the hydrophobic 12–17 segment promotes IAPP self-recognition and aggregation. Alanine scanning revealed that the hydrophobic side chains of Leu12, Phe15 and Val17 are critical for amyloid fibril formation. Destabilization of the α-helical folding by Pro substitution enhanced self-assembly when the pyrrolidine ring was successively introduced at positions Ala13, Asn14 and Phe15, in comparison to respective Ala-substituted counterparts. Modulating the peptide backbone flexibility at position Leu16 through successive incorporation of Pro, Gly and α-methylalanine, inhibited amyloid formation and reduced cytotoxicity, while the isobutyl side chain of Leu16 was not critical for self-assembly and IAPP-mediated toxicity. These results highlight the importance of the 12–17 hydrophobic region of IAPP for self-recognition, ultimately supporting the development of therapeutic approaches to prevent oligomerization and/or fibrillization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Fortier
- Department of Chemistry, Succursale Centre-Ville, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Mélanie Côté-Cyr
- Department of Chemistry, Succursale Centre-Ville, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Vy Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Succursale Centre-Ville, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Margaryta Babych
- Department of Chemistry, Succursale Centre-Ville, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Phuong Trang Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Succursale Centre-Ville, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Roger Gaudreault
- Department of Chemistry, Succursale Centre-Ville, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Physics, Université de Montréal, Succursale Centre-ville, Montreal, QC, Canada
- *Correspondence: Roger Gaudreault, ; Steve Bourgault,
| | - Steve Bourgault
- Department of Chemistry, Succursale Centre-Ville, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO, Montreal, QC, Canada
- *Correspondence: Roger Gaudreault, ; Steve Bourgault,
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3
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Pomorski A, Krężel A. Biarsenical fluorescent probes for multifunctional site-specific modification of proteins applicable in life sciences: an overview and future outlook. Metallomics 2021; 12:1179-1207. [PMID: 32658234 DOI: 10.1039/d0mt00093k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescent modification of proteins of interest (POI) in living cells is desired to study their behaviour and functions in their natural environment. In a perfect setting it should be easy to perform, inexpensive, efficient and site-selective. Although multiple chemical and biological methods have been developed, only a few of them are applicable for cellular studies thanks to their appropriate physical, chemical and biological characteristics. One such successful system is a tetracysteine tag/motif and its selective biarsenical binders (e.g. FlAsH and ReAsH). Since its discovery in 1998 by Tsien and co-workers, this method has been enhanced and revolutionized in terms of its efficiency, formed complex stability and breadth of application. Here, we overview the whole field of knowledge, while placing most emphasis on recent reports. We showcase the improvements of classical biarsenical probes with various optical properties as well as multifunctional molecules that add new characteristics to proteins. We also present the evolution of affinity tags and motifs of biarsenical probes demonstrating much more possibilities in cellular applications. We summarize protocols and reported observations so both beginners and advanced users of biarsenical probes can troubleshoot their experiments. We address the concerns regarding the safety of biarsenical probe application. We showcase examples in virology, studies on receptors or amyloid aggregation, where application of biarsenical probes allowed observations that previously were not possible. We provide a summary of current applications ranging from bioanalytical sciences to allosteric control of selected proteins. Finally, we present an outlook to encourage more researchers to use these magnificent probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Pomorski
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland.
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Identification of transmissible proteotoxic oligomer-like fibrils that expand conformational diversity of amyloid assemblies. Commun Biol 2021; 4:939. [PMID: 34354242 PMCID: PMC8342456 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02466-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein misfolding and amyloid deposition are associated with numerous diseases. The detailed characterization of the proteospecies mediating cell death remains elusive owing to the (supra)structural polymorphism and transient nature of the assemblies populating the amyloid pathway. Here we describe the identification of toxic amyloid fibrils with oligomer-like characteristics, which were assembled from an islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) derivative containing an Asn-to-Gln substitution (N21Q). While N21Q filaments share structural properties with cytocompatible fibrils, including the 4.7 Å inter-strand distance and β-sheet-rich conformation, they concurrently display characteristics of oligomers, such as low thioflavin-T binding, high surface hydrophobicity and recognition by the A11 antibody, leading to high potency to disrupt membranes and cause cellular dysfunction. The toxic oligomer-like conformation of N21Q fibrils, which is preserved upon elongation, is transmissible to naïve IAPP. These stable fibrils expanding the conformational diversity of amyloid assemblies represent an opportunity to elucidate the structural basis of amyloid disorders. Nguyen et al identified cytotoxic amyloid fibrils with oligomer-like characteristics, which were assembled from an islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) derivative containing an Asn-to-Gln substitution (N21Q). They presented evidence to show that these stable fibrils expand the conformational diversity of amyloid assemblies, which represents an opportunity to elucidate the structural basis of amyloid disorders.
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5
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Quittot N, Fortier M, Babych M, Nguyen PT, Sebastiao M, Bourgault S. Cell surface glycosaminoglycans exacerbate plasma membrane perturbation induced by the islet amyloid polypeptide. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21306. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.202001845r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Noé Quittot
- Department of Chemistry Université du Québec à Montréal Montreal QC Canada
- Center of Excellence in Research on Orphan Diseases ‐ Courtois Foundation Montreal Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO Quebec City Canada
| | - Mathilde Fortier
- Department of Chemistry Université du Québec à Montréal Montreal QC Canada
- Center of Excellence in Research on Orphan Diseases ‐ Courtois Foundation Montreal Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO Quebec City Canada
| | - Margaryta Babych
- Department of Chemistry Université du Québec à Montréal Montreal QC Canada
- Center of Excellence in Research on Orphan Diseases ‐ Courtois Foundation Montreal Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO Quebec City Canada
| | - Phuong Trang Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry Université du Québec à Montréal Montreal QC Canada
- Center of Excellence in Research on Orphan Diseases ‐ Courtois Foundation Montreal Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO Quebec City Canada
| | - Mathew Sebastiao
- Department of Chemistry Université du Québec à Montréal Montreal QC Canada
- Center of Excellence in Research on Orphan Diseases ‐ Courtois Foundation Montreal Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO Quebec City Canada
| | - Steve Bourgault
- Department of Chemistry Université du Québec à Montréal Montreal QC Canada
- Center of Excellence in Research on Orphan Diseases ‐ Courtois Foundation Montreal Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO Quebec City Canada
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Lou W, Stimple SD, Desai AA, Makowski EK, Kalyoncu S, Mogensen JE, Spang LT, Asgreen DJ, Staby A, Duus K, Amstrup J, Zhang Y, Tessier PM. Directed evolution of conformation-specific antibodies for sensitive detection of polypeptide aggregates in therapeutic drug formulations. Biotechnol Bioeng 2020; 118:797-808. [PMID: 33095442 DOI: 10.1002/bit.27610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Biologics such as peptides and proteins possess a number of attractive attributes that make them particularly valuable as therapeutics, including their high activity, high specificity, and low toxicity. However, one of the key challenges associated with this class of drugs is their propensity to aggregate. Given the safety and immunogenicity concerns related to polypeptide aggregates, it is particularly important to sensitively detect aggregates in therapeutic drug formulations as part of the quality control process. Here, we report the development of conformation-specific antibodies that recognize polypeptide aggregates composed of a GLP-1 receptor agonist (liraglutide) and their integration into a sensitive immunoassay for detecting liraglutide amyloid fibrils. We sorted single-chain antibody libraries against liraglutide fibrils using yeast surface display and magnetic-activated cell sorting, and identified several antibodies with high conformational specificity. Interestingly, these antibodies cross-react with amyloid fibrils formed by several other polypeptides, revealing that they recognize molecular features common to different types of fibrils. Moreover, we find that our immunoassay using these antibodies is >50-fold more sensitive than the conventional method for detecting liraglutide aggregation (Thioflavin T fluorescence). We expect that our systematic approach for generating a sensitive, aggregate-specific immunoassay can be readily extended to other biologics to improve the quality and safety of formulated drug products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjia Lou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Samuel D Stimple
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Alec A Desai
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Emily K Makowski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Sibel Kalyoncu
- Isermann Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yulei Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Peter M Tessier
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Isermann Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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Chen WL, Ma ST, Chen YW, Chao YC, Chan AC, Tu LH, Liu WM. A Fluorogenic Molecule for Probing Islet Amyloid Using Flavonoid as a Scaffold Design. Biochemistry 2020; 59:1482-1492. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.0c00076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Ling Chen
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 116, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Ting Ma
- Department of Chemistry, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 24205, Taiwan
| | - Yun-Wen Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Cheng Chao
- Department of Chemistry, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 24205, Taiwan
| | - Ai-Ci Chan
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 116, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Hsien Tu
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 116, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Min Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 24205, Taiwan
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Lee KH, Zhyvoloup A, Raleigh D. Amyloidogenicity and cytotoxicity of des-Lys-1 human amylin provides insight into amylin self-assembly and highlights the difficulties of defining amyloidogenicity. Protein Eng Des Sel 2019; 32:87-93. [PMID: 31768548 PMCID: PMC6908818 DOI: 10.1093/protein/gzz036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The polypeptide amylin is responsible for islet amyloid in type 2 diabetes, a process which contributes to β-cell death in the disease. The role of the N-terminal region of amylin in amyloid formation is relatively unexplored, although removal of the disulfide bridged loop between Cys-2 and Cys-7 accelerates amyloid formation. We examine the des Lys-1 variant of human amylin (h-amylin), a variant which is likely produced in vivo. Lys-1 is a region of high charge density in the h-amylin amyloid fiber. The des Lys-1 polypeptide forms amyloid on the same time scale as wild-type amylin in phosphate buffered saline, but does so more rapidly in Tris. The des Lys-1 variant is somewhat less toxic to cultured INS cells than wild type. The implications for the in vitro mechanism of amyloid formation and for comparative analysis of amyloidogenicity are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyung-Hoon Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11790-3400, USA
| | - Alexander Zhyvoloup
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E6BT, UK, and
| | - Daniel Raleigh
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11790-3400, USA
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E6BT, UK, and
- Laufer Center for Physical and Quantitative Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11790-3400, USA
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The triphenylmethane dye brilliant blue G is only moderately effective at inhibiting amyloid formation by human amylin or at disaggregating amylin amyloid fibrils, but interferes with amyloid assays; Implications for inhibitor design. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219130. [PMID: 31404073 PMCID: PMC6690547 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of inhibitors of islet amyloid formation is important as pancreatic amyloid deposition contributes to type-2 diabetes and islet transplant failure. The Alzheimer's Aβ peptide and human amylin (h-amylin), the polypeptide responsible for amyloid formation in type-2 diabetes, share common physio-chemical features and some inhibitors of Aβ also inhibit amyloid formation by h-amylin and vice versa. Thus, a popular and potentially useful strategy to find lead compounds for anti-amylin amyloid agents is to examine compounds that have effects on Aβ amyloid formation. The triphenylmethane dye, brilliant blue G (BBG, Sodium;3-[[4-[(E)-[4-(4-ethoxyanilino)phenyl]-[4-[ethyl-[(3-sulfonatophenyl)methyl]azaniumylidene]-2-methylcyclohexa-2,5-dien-1-ylidene]methyl]-N-ethyl-3-methylanilino]methyl]benzenesulfonate) has been shown to modulate Aβ amyloid formation and inhibit Aβ induced toxicity. However, the effects of BBG on h-amylin have not been examined, although other triphenylmethane derivatives inhibit h-amylin amyloid formation. The compound has only a modest impact on h-amylin amyloid formation unless it is added in significant excess. BBG also remodels preformed h-amylin amyloid fibrils if added in excess, however BBG has no significant effect on h-amylin induced toxicity towards cultured β-cells or cultured CHO-T cells except at high concentrations. BBG is shown to interfere with standard thioflavin-T assays of h-amylin amyloid formation and disaggregation, highlighting the difficulty of interpreting such experiments in the absence of other measurements. BBG also interferes with ANS based assays of h-amylin amyloid formation. The work highlights the differences between inhibition of Aβ and h-amylin amyloid formation, illustrates the limitation of using Aβ inhibitors as leads for h-amylin amyloid inhibitors, and reinforces the difficulties in interpreting dye binding assays of amyloid formation.
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Sebastiao M, Quittot N, Marcotte I, Bourgault S. Glycosaminoglycans Induce Amyloid Self-Assembly of a Peptide Hormone by Concerted Secondary and Quaternary Conformational Transitions. Biochemistry 2019; 58:1214-1225. [PMID: 30720275 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b01206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Amyloids are polypeptide supramolecular assemblies that have been historically associated with numerous pathologies. Nonetheless, recent studies have identified many amyloid structures that accomplish vital physiological functions. Interestingly, amyloid fibrils, either pathological or functional, have been reported to be consistently associated with other biomolecules such as RNA and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). These linear polyanions, RNA and GAGs, have also demonstrated an inherent ability to accelerate and/or promote amyloid formation. GAGs, including heparan sulfate, are highly charged polysaccharides that may have essential roles in the storage of peptide hormones in the form of amyloids. In this study, we evaluated the ability of sulfated GAGs to promote the self-assembly of the peptide (neuro)hormone PACAP27 and investigated the secondary and quaternary conformational transitions associated with the amyloidogenic process. PACAP27 readily self-assembled into insoluble, α-helix-rich globular particulates in the presence of sulfated GAGs, which gradually condensed and disappeared as nontoxic β-sheet-rich amyloid fibrils were formed. By designing a PACAP27 derivative for which helical folding was hindered, we observed that the α-helix-to-β-sheet conformational transition within the amorphous particulates constitutes the rate-limiting step of primary nucleation events. The proposed mechanism of GAG-induced self-assembly within insoluble particulates appears to be fundamentally different from usual amyloidogenic systems, which commonly implicates the formation of soluble prefibrillar proteospecies. Overall, this study provides new insights into the mechanistic details involved in the formation of functional amyloids catalyzed by polyanions, such as the assembly of nuclear amyloid bodies and the storage of peptide hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathew Sebastiao
- Department of Chemistry , Université du Québec à Montréal , C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-Ville , Montreal H3C 3P8 , Canada.,Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO , Université Laval , Québec G1V 0A6 , Canada
| | - Noe Quittot
- Department of Chemistry , Université du Québec à Montréal , C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-Ville , Montreal H3C 3P8 , Canada.,Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO , Université Laval , Québec G1V 0A6 , Canada
| | - Isabelle Marcotte
- Department of Chemistry , Université du Québec à Montréal , C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-Ville , Montreal H3C 3P8 , Canada.,Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO , Université Laval , Québec G1V 0A6 , Canada
| | - Steve Bourgault
- Department of Chemistry , Université du Québec à Montréal , C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-Ville , Montreal H3C 3P8 , Canada.,Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO , Université Laval , Québec G1V 0A6 , Canada
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