Engineering a Highly Biomimetic Chitosan-Based Cartilage Scaffold by Using Short Fibers and a Cartilage-Decellularized Matrix

FLight Biofabrication Supports Maturation of Articular Cartilage with Anisotropic Properties

Tissue engineering approaches that recapitulate cartilage biomechanical properties are emerging as promising methods to restore the function of injured or degenerated tissue. However, despite significant progress in this research area, the generation of engineered cartilage constructs akin to native counterparts still represents an unmet challenge. In particular, the inability to accurately reproduce cartilage zonal architecture with different collagen fibril orientations is a significant limitation. The arrangement of the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a fundamental role in determining the mechanical and biological functions of the tissue. In this study, it is shown that a novel light-based approach, Filamented Light (FLight) biofabrication, can be used to generate highly porous, 3D cell-instructive anisotropic constructs that lead to directional collagen deposition. Using a photoclick-based photoresin optimized for cartilage tissue engineering, a significantly improved maturation of the cartilaginous tissues with zonal architecture and remarkable native-like mechanical properties is demonstrated.

An injectable cartilage-coating composite with long-term protection, effective lubrication and chondrocyte nourishment for osteoarthritis treatment

The osteoarthritic (OA) environment within articular cartilage poses significant challenges, resulting in chondrocyte dysfunction and cartilage matrix degradation. While intra-articular injections of anti-inflammatory drugs, biomaterials, or bioactive agents have demonstrated some effectiveness, they primarily provide temporary relief from OA pain without arresting OA progression. This study presents an injectable cartilage-coating composite, comprising hyaluronic acid and decellularized cartilage matrix integrated with specific linker polymers. It enhances the material retention, protection, and lubrication on the cartilage surface, thereby providing an effective physical barrier against inflammatory factors and reducing the friction and shear force associated with OA joint movement. Moreover, the composite gradually releases nutrients, nourishing OA chondrocytes, aiding in the recovery of cellular function, promoting cartilage-specific matrix production, and mitigating OA progression in a rat model. Overall, this injectable cartilage-coating composite offers promising potential as an effective cell-free treatment for OA. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Osteoarthritis (OA) in the articular cartilage leads to chondrocyte dysfunction and cartilage matrix degradation. This study introduces an intra-articular injectable composite material (HDC), composed of decellularized cartilage matrix (dECMs), hyaluronan (HA), and specially designed linker polymers to provide an effective cell-free OA treatment. The linker polymers bind HA and dECMs to form an integrated HDC structure with an enhanced degradation rate, potentially reducing the need for frequent injections and associated trauma. They also enable HDC to specifically coat the cartilage surface, forming a protective and lubricating layer that enhances long-term retention, acts as a barrier against inflammatory factors, and reduces joint movement friction. Furthermore, HDC nourishes OA chondrocytes through gradual nutrient release, aiding cellular function recovery, promoting cartilage-specific matrix production, and mitigating OA progression.

Advances in Polysaccharides for Cartilage Tissue Engineering Repair: A Review

Cartilage repair has been a significant challenge in orthopedics that has not yet been fully resolved. Due to the absence of blood vessels and the almost cell-free nature of mature cartilage tissue, the limited ability to repair cartilage has resulted in significant socioeconomic pressures. Polysaccharide materials have recently been widely used for cartilage tissue repair due to their excellent cell loading, biocompatibility, and chemical modifiability. They also provide a suitable microenvironment for cartilage repair and regeneration. In this Review, we summarize the techniques used clinically for cartilage repair, focusing on polysaccharides, polysaccharides for cartilage repair, and the differences between these and other materials. In addition, we summarize the techniques of tissue engineering strategies for cartilage repair and provide an outlook on developing next-generation cartilage repair and regeneration materials from polysaccharides. This Review will provide theoretical guidance for developing polysaccharide-based cartilage repair and regeneration materials with clinical applications for cartilage tissue repair and regeneration.

Injectable and self-healable nano-architectured hydrogel for NIR-light responsive chemo- and photothermal bacterial eradication

Hydrogels with multifunctional properties activated at specific times have gained significant attention in the biomedical field. As bacterial infections can cause severe complications that negatively impact wound repair, herein, we present the development of a stimuli-responsive, injectable, and in situ-forming hydrogel with antibacterial, self-healing, and drug-delivery properties. In this study, we prepared a Pluronic F-127 (PF127) and sodium alginate (SA)-based hydrogel that can be targeted to a specific tissue via injection. The PF127/SA hydrogel was incorporated with polymeric short-filaments (SFs) containing an anti-inflammatory drug - ketoprofen, and stimuli-responsive polydopamine (PDA) particles. The hydrogel, after injection, could be in situ gelated at the body temperature, showing great in vitro stability and self-healing ability after 4 h of incubation. The SFs and PDA improved the hydrogel injectability and compressive strength. The introduction of PDA significantly accelerated the KET release under near-infrared light exposure and extended its release validity period. The excellent composites' photo-thermal performance led to antibacterial activity against representative Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, resulting in 99.9% E. coli and S. aureus eradication after 10 min of NIR light irradiation. In vitro, fibroblast L929 cell studies confirmed the materials' biocompatibility and paved the way toward further in vivo and clinical application of the system for chronic wound treatments.

Valorization of biological waste from insect-based food industry: Assessment of chitin and chitosan potential

Edible mealworms can be farmed to produce high-quality nutrients and proteins, useful as ingredients in human and animal foods. During this process biological waste is produced. This work explores the usage of the biological waste as source to produce chitin and chitosan with different potential applications. Different waste fractions were processed, and the feasibility of chitin isolation was assessed. Chitosan was derived, and films were fabricated and tested for intended uses. Data indicate that biopolymers with different properties can be obtained from multiple biological waste fractions. All samples show antibacterial activity, while chitosan films derived from molt show interesting properties for packaging purposes. Films also trigger the expression of anti-inflammatory phenotype markers in macrophage cells, which may be useful for tissue engineering implantation purposes. Altogether, biological waste from insect farming can be used to extract chitin and chitosan with different properties, and therefore, suitable for different applications.

Decellularized allogeneic cartilage paste with human costal cartilage and crosslinked hyaluronic acid-carboxymethyl cellulose carrier augments microfracture for improved articular cartilage repair

Articular cartilage lacks natural healing abilities and necessitates surgical treatments for injuries. While microfracture (MF) is a primary surgical approach, it often results in the formation of unstable fibrocartilage. Delivering hyaline cartilage directly to defects poses challenges due to the limited availability of autologous cartilage and difficulties associated with allogeneic cartilage delivery. We developed a decellularized allogeneic cartilage paste (DACP) using human costal cartilage mixed with a crosslinked hyaluronic acid (HA)-carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) carrier. The decellularized allogeneic cartilage preserved the extracellular matrix and the nanostructure of native hyaline cartilage. The crosslinked HA-CMC carrier provided shape retention and moldability. In vitro studies confirmed that DACP did not cause cytotoxicity and promoted migration, proliferation, and chondrogenic differentiation of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells. After 6 months of implantation in rabbit knee osteochondral defects, DACP combined with MF outperformed MF alone, demonstrating improved gait performance, defect filling, morphology, extracellular matrix deposition, and biomechanical properties similar to native cartilage. Thus, DACP offers a safe and effective method for articular cartilage repair, representing a promising augmentation to MF. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Directly delivering hyaline cartilage to repair articular cartilage defects is an ideal treatment. However, current allogeneic cartilage products face delivery challenges. In this study, we developed a decellularized allogeneic cartilage paste (DACP) by mixing human costal cartilage with crosslinked hyaluronic acid (HA)-carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). DACP preserves extracellular matrix components and nanostructures similar to native cartilage, with HA-CMC ensuring shape retention and moldability. Our study demonstrates improved cartilage repair by combining DACP with microfracture, compared to microfracture alone, in rabbit knee defects over 6 months. This is the first report showing better articular cartilage repair using decellularized allogeneic cartilage with microfracture, without the need for exogenous cells or bioactive substances.

Towards Polycaprolactone-Based Scaffolds for Alveolar Bone Tissue Engineering: A Biomimetic Approach in a 3D Printing Technique

The alveolar bone is a unique type of bone, and the goal of bone tissue engineering (BTE) is to develop methods to facilitate its regeneration. Currently, an emerging trend involves the fabrication of polycaprolactone (PCL)-based scaffolds using a three-dimensional (3D) printing technique to enhance an osteoconductive architecture. These scaffolds are further modified with hydroxyapatite (HA), type I collagen (CGI), or chitosan (CS) to impart high osteoinductive potential. In conjunction with cell therapy, these scaffolds may serve as an appealing alternative to bone autografts. This review discusses research gaps in the designing of 3D-printed PCL-based scaffolds from a biomimetic perspective. The article begins with a systematic analysis of biological mineralisation (biomineralisation) and ossification to optimise the scaffold's structural, mechanical, degradation, and surface properties. This scaffold-designing strategy lays the groundwork for developing a research pathway that spans fundamental principles such as molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and fabrication techniques. Ultimately, this paves the way for systematic in vitro and in vivo studies, leading to potential clinical applications.

Promotion of adipose stem cell transplantation using GelMA hydrogel reinforced by PLCL/ADM short nanofibers

Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) show poor survival after transplantation, limiting their clinical application. In this study, a series of poly(l-lactide-co-ϵ-caprolactone) (PLCL)/acellular dermal matrix (ADM) nanofiber scaffolds with different proportions were prepared by electrospinning. By studying their morphology, hydrophilicity, tensile mechanics, and biocompatibility, PLCL/ADM nanofiber scaffolds with the best composition ratio (PLCL:ADM = 7:3) were selected to prepare short nanofibers. And based on this, injectable gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel loaded with PLCL/ADM short nanofibers (GelMA-Fibers) was constructed as a transplantation vector of ADSCs. ADSCs and GelMA-Fibers were co-cultured, and the optimal loading concentration of PLCL/ADM nanofibers was investigated by cell proliferation assay, live/dead cell staining, and cytoskeleton stainingin vitro. In vivoinvestigations were also performed by H&E staining, Oil red O staining, and TUNEL staining, and the survival and apoptosis rates of ADSCs transplantedin vivowere analyzed. It was demonstrated that GelMA-Fibers could effectively promote the proliferation of ADSCsin vitro. Most importantly, GelMA-Fibers increased the survival rate of ADSCs transplantation and decreased their apoptosis rate within 14 d. In conclusion, the constructed GelMA-Fibers would provide new ideas and options for stem cell tissue engineering and stem cell-based clinical therapies.

Application of chitosan with different molecular weights in cartilage tissue engineering

Cartilage tissue engineering involves the invention of novel implantable cartilage replacement materials to help heal cartilage injuries that do not heal themselves, aiming to overcome the shortcomings of current clinical cartilage treatments. Chitosan has been widely used in cartilage tissue engineering because of its similar structure to glycine aminoglycan, which is widely distributed in connective tissues. The molecular weight, as an important structural parameter of chitosan, affects not only the method of chitosan composite scaffold preparation but also the effect on cartilage tissue healing. Thus, this review identifies methods for the preparation of chitosan composite scaffolds with low, medium and high molecular weights, as well as a range of chitosan molecular weights appropriate for cartilage tissue repair, by summarizing the application of different molecular weights of chitosan in cartilage repair in recent years.

Advances in mechanically robust and biomimetic polysaccharide-based constructs for cartilage tissue engineering

The purpose of cartilage tissue engineering is to provide artificial constructs with biological functions and mechanical features that resemble native tissue to improve tissue regeneration. Biochemical characteristics of the cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) microenvironment provide a platform for researchers to develop biomimetic materials for optimal tissue repair. Due to the structural similarity of polysaccharides into physicochemical characteristics of cartilage ECM, these natural polymers capture special attention for developing biomimetic materials. The mechanical properties of constructs play a crucial influence in load-bearing cartilage tissues. Moreover, the addition of appropriate bioactive molecules to these constructs can promote chondrogenesis. Here, we discuss polysaccharide-based constructs that can be used to create substitutes for cartilage regeneration. We intend to focus on newly developed bioinspired materials, fine-tuning the mechanical properties of constructs, the design of carriers loaded by chondroinductive agents, and development of appropriate bioinks as a bioprinting approach for cartilage regeneration.

The Immunosuppressive Niche Established with a Curcumin-Loaded Electrospun Nanofibrous Membrane Promotes Cartilage Regeneration in Immunocompetent Animals

Inflammatory cells mount an immune response against in vitro engineered cartilage implanted into immunocompetent animals, consequently limiting the usage of tissue-engineered cartilage to repair cartilage defects. In this study, curcumin (Cur)-an anti-inflammatory agent-was mixed with poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) to develop a Cur/PLGA nanofibrous membrane with nanoscale pore size and anti-inflammatory properties. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography analyses confirmed the successful loading of Cur into the Cur/PLGA nanofibrous membrane. The results of the in vitro assay demonstrated the sustained release kinetics and enhanced stability of Cur in the Cur/PLGA nanofibrous membrane. Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay analyses revealed that the Cur/PLGA nanofibrous membrane significantly downregulated the expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α). A chondrocyte suspension was seeded into a porous PLGA scaffold, and the loaded scaffold was cultured for 3 weeks in vitro to engineer cartilage tissues. The cartilage was packed with the in vitro engineered Cur/PLGA nanofibrous membrane and subcutaneously implanted into rats to generate an immunosuppressive niche. Compared with those in the PLGA-implanted and pure cartilage (without nanofibrous membrane package)-implanted groups, the cartilage was well preserved and the inflammatory response was suppressed in the Cur/PLGA-implanted group at weeks 2 and 4 post-implantation. Thus, this study demonstrated that packaging the cartilage with the Cur/PLGA nanofibrous membrane effectively generated an immunosuppressive niche to protect the cartilage against inflammatory invasion. These findings enable the clinical translation of tissue-engineered cartilage to repair cartilage defects.

Chitosan-Based Biomaterials for Tissue Regeneration

Chitosan is a chitin-derived biopolymer that has shown great potential for tissue regeneration and controlled drug delivery. It has numerous qualities that make it attractive for biomedical applications such as biocompatibility, low toxicity, broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, and many others. Importantly, chitosan can be fabricated into a variety of structures including nanoparticles, scaffolds, hydrogels, and membranes, which can be tailored to deliver a desirable outcome. Composite chitosan-based biomaterials have been demonstrated to stimulate in vivo regeneration and the repair of various tissues and organs, including but not limited to, bone, cartilage, dental, skin, nerve, cardiac, and other tissues. Specifically, de novo tissue formation, resident stem cell differentiation, and extracellular matrix reconstruction were observed in multiple preclinical models of different tissue injuries upon treatment with chitosan-based formulations. Moreover, chitosan structures have been proven to be efficient carriers for medications, genes, and bioactive compounds since they can maintain the sustained release of these therapeutics. In this review, we discuss the most recently published applications of chitosan-based biomaterials for different tissue and organ regeneration as well as the delivery of various therapeutics.

Highly gallol-substituted, rapidly self-crosslinkable, and robust chitosan hydrogel for 3D bioprinting

Although three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a promising technology for reconstructing artificial tissues and organs using bioink, there is a lack of a bioink that satisfies all requirements, including printability, gelation, mechanical properties, and cytocompatibility, Herein, a novel self-crosslinkable bioink derived from chitosan (CS) and gallic acid (GA) is presented. 3D printed scaffolds with excellent shape fidelity are realized by systematically analyzing the self-crosslinking mechanism of hydrogel formation from CS-GA conjugates and by optimizing various parameters of the printing process. The CS-GA hydrogel forms rapidly in a physiological pH without any chemical crosslinking agent. In addition, the CS-GA hydrogel exhibited various physical and chemical intermolecular interactions, fast gelation rates, and excellent mechanical properties (>337 kPa). Moreover, the CS-GA hydrogel singificantly improves the cell viability (>92 %) and proliferation of the bioink. Therefore, the self-crosslinkable CS-GA bioink has great potential to overcome the limitations of conventional bioinks.

Recent Developments and Current Applications of Organic Nanomaterials in Cartilage Repair

Regeneration of cartilage is difficult due to the unique microstructure, unique multizone organization, and avascular nature of cartilage tissue. The development of nanomaterials and nanofabrication technologies holds great promise for the repair and regeneration of injured or degenerated cartilage tissue. Nanomaterials have structural components smaller than 100 nm in at least one dimension and exhibit unique properties due to their nanoscale structure and high specific surface area. The unique properties of nanomaterials include, but are not limited to, increased chemical reactivity, mechanical strength, degradability, and biocompatibility. As an emerging nanomaterial, organic nanocomposites can mimic natural cartilage in terms of microstructure, physicochemical, mechanical, and biological properties. The integration of organic nanomaterials is expected to develop scaffolds that better mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) environment of cartilage to enhance scaffold-cell interactions and improve the functionality of engineered tissue constructs. Next-generation hydrogel technology and bioprinting can be used not only for healing cartilage injury areas but also for extensive osteoarthritic degenerative changes within the joint. Although more challenges need to be solved before they can be translated into full-fledged commercial products, nano-organic composites remain very promising candidates for the future development of cartilage tissue engineering.

DEVELOPMENT OF FUNCTIONAL HYBRID SCAFFOLDS FOR WOUND HEALING APPLICATIONS

Hybrid hydrogels composed of chitosan (CS) and hyaluronic acid (HA) and collagen (Coll) were prepared by polyelectrolyte complex self-assembly. These scaffolds displayed a good intermingling of the polymeric chains, with porosities above 80% and good interconnected structures with pore sizes lying between 30–115 μm. The ionic interactions between CS and HA make the scaffolds have larger storage modulus and longer LVR regions than their pure counterparts. Both quantities progressively decrease as the HA and Coll concentrations in the formulation rise. These hybrid hydrogels showed good swelling extents from ca. 420 to ca. 690% and suitable resistance to enzymatic degradation, which was slightly lower for scaffolds containing CS to larger extents or Coll in the formulation. All scaffolds were largely cytocompatible and allowed the proliferation of both mouse fibroblast and human keratinocytes with their infiltration inside, thus becoming optimal matrices for intended tissue engineering applications as well as transdermal drug delivery depots.

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Hybrid scaffolds were obtained by polyelectrolyte ionic self-assembly

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Scaffolds were largely porous with suitable pore sizes for cell proliferation

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Scaffolds showed exceptional swelling and good resistance to enzymatic attack

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They were nontoxic and enabled cell proliferation and infiltration inside the scaffold

Chitosan/Pluronic F127 Thermosensitive Hydrogel as an Injectable Dexamethasone Delivery Carrier

Intra-articular administration of anti-inflammatory drugs is a strategy that allows localized action on damaged articular cartilage and reduces the side effects associated with systemic drug administration. The objective of this work is to prepare injectable thermosensitive hydrogels for the long-term application of dexamethasone. The hydrogels were prepared by mixing chitosan (CS) and Pluronic-F127 (PF) physically. In addition, tripolyphosphate (TPP) was used as a crosslinking agent. Chitosan added to the mix increased the gel time compared to the pluronic gel alone. The incorporation of TPP into the material modified the morphology of the hydrogels formed. Subsequently, MTS and Live/Dead® experiments were performed to investigate the toxicity of hydrogels against human chondrocytes. The in vitro releases of dexamethasone (DMT) from CS-PF and CS-PF-TPP gels had an initial burst and took more time than that from the PF hydrogel. In vivo studies showed that hydrogels retained the fluorescent compound longer in the joint than when administered in PBS alone. These results suggest that the CS-PF and CS-PF-TPP hydrogels loaded with DMT could be a promising drug delivery platform for the treatment of osteoarthritis.

Electrospun Nanofibers for Bone Regeneration: From Biomimetic Composition, Structure to Function

In recent years, a variety of novel materials and processing technologies have been developed to prepare tissue engineering scaffolds for bone defect repair. Among them, nanofibers fabricated via electrospinning technology...

Chitosan Functionalization: Covalent and Non-Covalent Interactions and Their Characterization

Chitosan (CS) is a natural biopolymer that has gained great interest in many research fields due to its promising biocompatibility, biodegradability, and favorable mechanical properties. The versatility of this low-cost polymer allows for a variety of chemical modifications via covalent conjugation and non-covalent interactions, which are designed to further improve the properties of interest. This review aims at presenting the broad range of functionalization strategies reported over the last five years to reflect the state-of-the art of CS derivatization. We start by describing covalent modifications performed on the CS backbone, followed by non-covalent CS modifications involving small molecules, proteins, and metal adjuvants. An overview of CS-based systems involving both covalent and electrostatic modification patterns is then presented. Finally, a special focus will be given on the characterization techniques commonly used to qualify the composition and physical properties of CS derivatives.

Microsphere embedded hydrogel construct - binary delivery of alendronate and BMP-2 for superior bone regeneration

Biomimetic delivery of osteoinductive growth factors via an osteoconductive matrix is an interesting approach for stimulating bone regeneration. In this context, the bone extracellular matrix (ECM) has been explored as an optimal delivery system, since it releases growth factors in a spatiotemporal manner from the matrix. However, a bone ECM hydrogel alone is weak, unstable, and prone to microbial contamination and also has been reported to have significantly reduced bone morphogenic protein-2 (BMP-2) post decellularization. In the present work, a microsphere embedded osteoinductive decellularized bone ECM/oleoyl chitosan based hydrogel construct (BOC) was developed as a matrix allowing dual delivery of an anti-resorptive drug (alendronate, ALN, via the microspheres) and BMP-2 (via the hydrogel) for a focal tibial defect in a rabbit model. The synthesized gelatin microspheres (GMs) were spherical in shape with diameter ∼32 μm as assessed by SEM analysis. The BOC construct showed sustained release of ALN and BMP-2 under the studied conditions. Interestingly, amniotic membrane-derived stem cells (HAMSCs) cultivated on the hydrogel construct demonstrated excellent biocompatibility, cell viability, and active proliferation potential. Additionally, cell differentiation on the constructs showed an elevated expression of osteogenic genes in an RT-PCR study along with enhanced mineralized matrix deposition as demonstrated by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) assay and alizarin red assay. The hydrogel construct was witnessed to have improved neo-vascularization potential in a chick chorioalantoic membrane (CAM) assay. Also, histological and computed tomographic findings evidenced enhanced bone regeneration in the group treated with the BOC/ALN/BMP hydrogel construct in a rabbit tibial defect model. To conclude, the developed multifunctional hydrogel construct acts as an osteoinductive and osteoconductive platform facilitating controlled delivery of ALN and BMP-2, essential for stimulating bone tissue regeneration.