Segmented Highly Branched Copolymers: Rationally Designed Macromolecules for Improved and Tunable 19F MRI

Self-assembling dendrimer nanosystems for specific fluorine magnetic resonance imaging and effective theranostic treatment of tumors

Fluorine magnetic resonance imaging (19F-MRI) is particularly promising for biomedical applications owing to the absence of fluorine in most biological systems. However, its use has been limited by the lack of safe and water-soluble imaging agents with high fluorine contents and suitable relaxation properties. We report innovative 19F-MRI agents based on supramolecular dendrimers self-assembled by an amphiphilic dendrimer composed of a hydrophobic alkyl chain and a hydrophilic dendron. Specifically, this amphiphilic dendrimer bears multiple negatively charged terminals with high fluorine content, which effectively prevented intra- and intermolecular aggregation of fluorinated entities via electrostatic repulsion. This permitted high fluorine nuclei mobility alongside good water solubility with favorable relaxation properties for use in 19F-MRI. Importantly, the self-assembling 19F-MRI agent was able to encapsulate the near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) agent DiR and the anticancer drug paclitaxel for multimodal 19F-MRI and NIRF imaging of and theranostics for pancreatic cancer, a deadly disease for which there remains no adequate early detection method or efficacious treatment. The 19F-MRI and multimodal 19F-MRI and NIRF imaging studies on human pancreatic cancer xenografts in mice confirmed the capability of both imaging modalities to specifically image the tumors and demonstrated the efficacy of the theranostic agent in cancer treatment, largely outperforming the clinical anticancer drug paclitaxel. Consequently, these dendrimer nanosystems constitute promising 19F-MRI agents for effective cancer management. This study offers a broad avenue to the construction of 19F-MRI agents and theranostics, exploiting self-assembling supramolecular dendrimer chemistry.

Fluorinated hydrogel nanoparticles with regulable fluorine contents and T2 relaxation times as 19F MRI contrast agents

Medical imaging contrast agents that are able to provide detailed biological information have attracted increasing attention. Among the new emerging imaging contrast agents, ¹⁹F magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents (¹⁹F MRI CAs) are extremely promising for their weak background disturbing signal from the body. However, to prepare ¹⁹F MRI CAs with a long T₂ relaxation time and excellent biocompatibility in a simple and highly effective strategy is still a challenge. Herein, we report a new type of ¹⁹F MRI hydrogel nanocontrast agents (¹⁹F MRI HNCAs) synthesized by a surfactant-free emulsion polymerization with commercial fluorinated monomers. The T₂ relaxation time of ¹⁹F MRI HNCA-1 was found to be 25-40 ms, guaranteeing its good imaging ability in vitro. In addition, according to an investigation into the relationship between the fluorine content and ¹⁹F MRI signal intensity, the ¹⁹F MRI signal intensity was not only determined by the fluorine content in ¹⁹F MRI HNCAs but also by the hydration microenvironment around the fluorine atoms. Moreover, ¹⁹F MRI HNCAs demonstrated excellent biocompatibility and imaging capability inside cells. The primary exploration demonstrated that ¹⁹F MRI HNCAs as a new type of ¹⁹F MRI contrast agent hold potential for imaging lesion sites and tracking cells in vivo by ¹⁹F MRI technology.

Synthesis of 5-Fluorouracil Polymer Conjugate and 19F NMR Analysis of Drug Release for MRI Monitoring

To monitor the release of fluorinated drugs from polymeric carriers, a novel 19F MRI enzyme-responsive contrast agent was developed and tested. This contrast agent was prepared by conjugation of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) to hyperbranched poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide) (HB-PDMA) via an enzyme-degradable peptide linker. Due to the different molecular sizes, the release of 5-FU from the 5-FU polymer conjugate resulted in a sufficiently substantial difference in spin-spin T2 19F NMR/MRI relaxation time that enabled differentiating between attached and released drug states. The 5-FU polymer conjugate exhibited a broad signal and short T2 relaxation time under 19F NMR analysis. Incubation with the enzyme induced the release of 5-FU, accompanied by an extension of T2 relaxation times and an enhancement in the 19F MRI signal. This approach is promising for application in the convenient monitoring of 5-FU drug release and can be used to monitor the release of other fluorinated drugs.

19 F MRI Nanotheranostics for Cancer Management: Progress and Prospects

Fluorine magnetic resonance imaging (¹⁹ F MRI) is a promising imaging technique for cancer diagnosis because of its excellent soft tissue resolution and deep tissue penetration, as well as the inherent high natural abundance, almost no endogenous interference, quantitative analysis, and wide chemical shift range of the ¹⁹ F nucleus. In recent years, scientists have synthesized various ¹⁹ F MRI contrast agents. By further integrating a wide variety of nanomaterials and cutting-edge construction strategies, magnetically equivalent ¹⁹ F atoms are super-loaded and maintain satisfactory relaxation efficiency to obtain high-intensity ¹⁹ F MRI signals. In this review, the nuclear magnetic resonance principle underlying ¹⁹ F MRI is first described. Then, the construction and performance of various fluorinated contrast agents are summarized. Finally, challenges and future prospects regarding the clinical translation of ¹⁹ F MRI nanoprobes are considered. This review will provide strategic guidance and panoramic expectations for designing new cancer theranostic regimens and realizing their clinical translation.

Facile synthesis and self-assembly behaviors of biodegradable amphiphilic hyperbranched copolymers with reducible poly(caprolactone) grafts

A reducible hydrophobic macromonomer, HEMA-g-PCL, developed herein provides a facile yet robust strategy for biodegradable amphiphilic hyperbranched copolymers.

Organic/Inorganic Self-Assembled Hybrid Nano-Architectures for Cancer Therapy Applications

Since the conceptualization of nanomedicine, numerous nanostructure-mediated drug formulations have progressed into clinical trials for treating cancer. However, recent clinical trial results indicate such kind of drug formulations has a limited improvement on the antitumor efficacy. This is due to the biological barriers associated with those formulations, for example, circulation stability, extravasation efficiency in tumor, tumor penetration ability, and developed multi-drug resistance. When employing for nanomedicine formulations, pristine organic-based and inorganic-based nanostructures have their own limitations. Accordingly, organic/inorganic (O/I) hybrids have been developed to integrate the merits of both, and to minimize their intrinsic drawbacks. In this context, the recent development in O/I hybrids resulting from a self-assembly strategy will be introduced. Through such a strategy, organic and inorganic building blocks can be self-assembled via either chemical covalent bonds or physical interactions. Based on the self-assemble procedure, the hybridization of four organic building blocks including liposomes, micelles, dendrimers, and polymeric nanocapsules with five functional inorganic nanoparticles comprising gold nanostructures, magnetic nanoparticles, carbon-based materials, quantum dots, and silica nanoparticles will be highlighted. The recent progress of these O/I hybrids in advanced modalities for combating cancer, such as, therapeutic agent delivery, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy will be systematically reviewed.

Machine-Learning-Guided Discovery of 19F MRI Agents Enabled by Automated Copolymer Synthesis

Modern polymer science suffers from the curse of multidimensionality. The large chemical space imposed by including combinations of monomers into a statistical copolymer overwhelms polymer synthesis and characterization technology and limits the ability to systematically study structure-property relationships. To tackle this challenge in the context of 19F magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) agents, we pursued a computer-guided materials discovery approach that combines synergistic innovations in automated flow synthesis and machine learning (ML) method development. A software-controlled, continuous polymer synthesis platform was developed to enable iterative experimental-computational cycles that resulted in the synthesis of 397 unique copolymer compositions within a six-variable compositional space. The nonintuitive design criteria identified by ML, which were accomplished by exploring <0.9% of the overall compositional space, lead to the identification of >10 copolymer compositions that outperformed state-of-the-art materials.

Engineering a Smart Agent for Enhanced Immunotherapy Effect by Simultaneously Blocking PD-L1 and CTLA-4

Combinations of immune checkpoint therapies show encouraging results in the treatment of many human cancers. However, the higher costs and greater side effects of such combinations compared with single-agent immunotherapies limit their further applications. In this work, a novel smart agent, KN046@19 F-ZIF-8, is developed to overcome these limitations. KN046 is a novel recombinant humanized PD-L1/CTLA-4 bispecific single-domain antibody-Fc fusion protein, which can bind to both PD-L1 and CTLA-4 effectively. ZIF-8 is a smart delivery system, which can safely and effectively deliver KN406 to a tumor. In vitro and in vivo results demonstrate that the smart agent KN046@19 F-ZIF-8 not only improves the immune response rate of the antibody drug in treatment of tumors but also reduces its toxic side effects, thereby achieving excellent antitumor efficacy. This study provides an engineering strategy for clinical applications of a more effective immunotherapy.

Fluorine-Containing Block and Gradient Copoly(2-oxazoline)s Based on 2-(3,3,3-Trifluoropropyl)-2-oxazoline: A Quest for the Optimal Self-Assembled Structure for 19F Imaging

The use of fluorinated contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) facilitates improved image quality due to the negligible amount of endogenous fluorine atoms in the body. In this work, we present a comprehensive study of the influence of the amphiphilic polymer structure and composition on its applicability as contrast agents in ¹⁹F MRI. Three series of novel fluorine-containing poly(2-oxazoline) copolymers and terpolymers, hydrophilic-fluorophilic, hydrophilic-lipophilic-fluorophilic, and hydrophilic-thermoresponsive-fluorophilic, with block and gradient distributions of the fluorinated units, were synthesized. It was discovered that the CF₃ in the 2-(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)-2-oxazoline (CF₃EtOx) group activated the cationic chain end, leading to faster copolymerization kinetics, whereby spontaneous monomer gradients were formed with accelerated incorporation of 2-methyl-2-oxazoline or 2-n-propyl-2-oxazoline with a gradual change to the less-nucleophilic CF₃EtOx monomer. The obtained amphiphilic copolymers and terpolymers form spherical or wormlike micelles in water, which was confirmed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), while small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) revealed the core-shell or core-double-shell morphologies of these nanoparticles. The core and shell sizes obey the scaling laws for starlike micelles predicted by the scaling theory. Biocompatibility studies confirm that all copolymers obtained are noncytotoxic and, at the same time, exhibit high sensitivity during in vitro ¹⁹F MRI studies. The gradient copolymers provide the best ¹⁹F MRI signal-to-noise ratio in comparison with the analogue block copolymer structures, making them most promising as ¹⁹F MRI contrast agents.

Hyperbranched polymer hydrogels with large stimuli-responsive changes in storage moduli and peroxide-induced healing

Hydrogels prepared using hyperbranched polymers with dynamic disulfide bonds show larger changes in moduli upon exposure to chemical stimuli for both softening and stiffening responses compared to linear polymers.

Fluoropolymers in biomedical applications: state-of-the-art and future perspectives

Biomedical applications of fluoropolymers in gene delivery, protein delivery, drug delivery, ¹⁹F MRI, PDT, anti-fouling, anti-bacterial, cell culture, and tissue engineering.

Universal Scaling Behavior during Network Formation in Controlled Radical Polymerizations

Despite the ubiquity of branched and network polymers in biological, electronic, and rheological applications, it remains difficult to predict the network structure arising from polymerization of vinyl and multivinyl monomers. While controlled radical polymerization (CRP) techniques afford modularity and control in the synthesis of (hyper)branched polymers, a unifying understanding of network formation providing grounded predictive power is still lacking. A current limitation is the inability to predict the number and weight average molecular weights that arise during the synthesis of (hyper)branched polymers using CRP. This study addresses this literature gap through first building intuition via a growth boundary analysis on how certain environmental cues (concentration, monomer choice, and cross-linker choice) affect the cross-link efficiency during network formation through experimental gel point measurements. We then demonstrate, through experimental gel point normalization, universal scaling behavior of molecular weights in the synthesis of branched polymers corroborated by previous literature experiments. Moreover, the normalization employed in this analysis reveals trends in the macroscopic mechanical properties of networks synthesized using CRP techniques. Gel point normalization employed in this analysis both enables a polymer chemist to target specific number and weight average molecular weights of (hyper)branched polymers using CRP and demonstrates the utility of CRP for gel synthesis.

19F MRI of Polymer Nanogels Aided by Improved Segmental Mobility of Embedded Fluorine Moieties

Using fluorinated probes for 19F MRI imaging is an emerging field with potential utility in cellular imaging and cell tracking in vivo, which complements conventional 1H MRI. An attractive feature of 19F-based imaging is that this is a bio-orthogonal nucleus and the naturally abundant isotope is NMR active. A significant hurdle however in the 19F MRI arises from the tendency of organic macromolecules, with multiple fluorocarbon substitutions, to aggregate in the aqueous phase. This aggregation results in significant loss of sensitivity, because the T2 relaxation times of these aggregated 19F species tend to be significantly lower. In this report, we have developed a strategy to covalently trap nanoscopic states with an optimal degree of 19F substitutions, followed by significant enhancement in T2 relaxation times through increased segmental mobility of the side chain substituents facilitated by the stimulus-responsive elements in the polymeric nanogel. In addition to NMR relaxation time based evaluations, the ability to obtain such signals are also evaluated in mouse models. The propensity of these nanoscale assemblies to encapsulate hydrophobic drug molecules and the availability of surfaces for convenient introduction of fluorescent labels suggest the potential of these nanoscale architectures for use in multimodal imaging and therapeutic applications.

A Hyperfluorinated Hydrophilic Molecule for Aqueous 19F MRI Contrast Media

Fluorine-19 (¹⁹F) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has the potential for a wide range of in vivo applications but is limited by lack of flexibility in exogenous probe formulation. Most ¹⁹F MRI probes are composed of perfluorocarbons (PFCs) or perfluoropolyethers (PFPEs) with intrinsic properties which limit formulation options. Hydrophilic organofluorine molecules can provide more flexibility in formulation options. We report herein a hyperfluorinated hydrophilic organoflourine, ET1084, with ∼24 wt. % ¹⁹F content. It dissolves in water and aqueous buffers to give solutions with ≥8 M ¹⁹F. ¹⁹F MRI phantom studies at 9.4T employing a 10-minute multislice multiecho (MSME) scan sequence show a linear increase in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) with increasing concentrations of the molecule and a detection limit of 5 mM. Preliminary cytotoxicity and genotoxicity assessments suggest it is safe at concentrations of up to 20 mM.

High F-Content Perfluoropolyether-Based Nanoparticles for Targeted Detection of Breast Cancer by 19F Magnetic Resonance and Optical Imaging

Two important challenges in the field of ¹⁹F magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are the maintenance of high fluorine content without compromising imaging performance, and effective targeting of small particles to diseased tissue. To address these challenges, we have developed a series of perfluoropolyether (PFPE)-based hyperbranched (HBPFPE) nanoparticles with attached peptide aptamer as targeting ligands for specific in vivo detection of breast cancer with high ¹⁹F MRI sensitivity. A detailed comparison of the HBPFPE nanoparticles (NPs) with the previously reported trifluoroethyl acrylate (TFEA)-based polymers demonstrates that the mobility of fluorinated segments of the HBPFPE nanoparticles is significantly enhanced (¹⁹F T₂ > 80 ms vs 31 ms), resulting in superior MR imaging sensitivity. Selective targeting was confirmed by auto- and pair correlation analysis of fluorescence microscopy data, in vitro immunofluorescence, in vivo ¹⁹F MRI, ex vivo fluorescence and ¹⁹F NMR. The results highlight the high efficiency of aptamers for targeting and the excellent sensitivity of the PFPE moieties for ¹⁹F MRI. Of relevance to in vivo applications, the PFPE-based polymers exhibit much faster clearance from the body than the previously introduced perfluorocarbon emulsions ( t_1/2 ∼ 20 h vs up to months). Moreover, the aptamer-conjugated NPs show significantly higher tumor-penetration, demonstrating the potential of these imaging agents for therapeutic applications. This report of the synthesis of polymeric aptamer-conjugated PFPE-based ¹⁹F MRI CAs with high fluorine content (∼10 wt %) demonstrates that these NPs are exciting candidates for detecting diseases with high imaging sensitivity.

Elucidating the Impact of Molecular Structure on the 19F NMR Dynamics and MRI Performance of Fluorinated Oligomers

To understand molecular factors that impact the performance of polymeric ¹⁹F magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) agents, a series of discrete fluorinated oligoacrylates with precisely defined structure were prepared through the combination of controlled polymerization and chromatographic separation techniques. These discrete oligomers enabled thorough elucidation of the dependence of ¹⁹F NMR and MRI properties on molecular structure, for example, the chain length. Importantly, the oligomer size and dispersity strongly influence NMR dynamics (T₁ and T₂ relaxation times) and MR imaging properties with higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) observed for oligomers with longer chain length and shorter T₁. Our approach enables an effective pathway and thus opportunities to rationally design effective polymeric ¹⁹F MR imaging agents with optimized molecular structure and NMR relaxivity.

A unique 19F MRI agent for the tracking of non phagocytic cells in vivo

There is currently intense interest in new methods for understanding the fate of therapeutically-relevant cells, such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). The absence of a confounding background signal and consequent unequivocal assignment makes 19F MRI one of the most attractive modalities for the tracking of injected cells in vivo. We describe here the synthesis of novel partly-fluorinated polymeric nanoparticles with small size and high fluorine content as MRI agents. The polymers, constructed from perfluoropolyether methacrylate (PFPEMA) and oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate (OEGMA) have favourable cell uptake profiles and excellent MRI performance. To facilitate cell studies the polymer was further conjugated with a fluorescent dye creating a dual-modal imaging agent. The efficacy of labelling of MSCs was assessed using 19F NMR, flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The labelling efficiency of 2.6 ± 0.1 × 1012 19F atoms per cell, and viability of >90% demonstrates high uptake and good tolerance by the cells. This loading translates to a minimum 19F MRI detection sensitivity of ∼7.4 × 103 cells per voxel. Importantly, preliminary in vivo data demonstrate that labelled cells can be readily detected within a short acquisition scan period (12 minutes). Hence, these copolymers show outstanding potential for 19F MRI cellular tracking and for quantification of non-phagocytic and therapeutically-relevant cells in vivo.

Responsive crosslinked polymer nanogels for imaging and therapeutics delivery

Nanogels are water-soluble crosslinked polymer networks with tremendous potential in targeted imaging and controlled drug and gene delivery.

A new difluoromethoxyl-containing acrylate monomer for PEG-b-PDFMOEA amphiphilic diblock copolymers

This article reports the first synthesis of a well-defined difluoromethoxyl-containing polyacrylate via ATRP.

A pH-responsive nanoprobe for turn-on 19F-magnetic resonance imaging

A pH-responsive MRI nanoprobe was developed by partially replacing organic linkers in ZIF-8, which displays pH-responsive in vivo¹⁹F MRI ability.

Polymeric 19F MRI agents responsive to reactive oxygen species

Medical imaging agents that can report on the biological state are attracting increasing interest.

Optical and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Using Fluorous Colloidal Nanoparticles

Improved imaging of cancerous tissue has the potential to aid prognosis and improve patient outcome through longitudinal imaging of treatment response and disease progression. While nuclear imaging has made headway in cancer imaging, fluorinated tracers that enable magnetic resonance imaging (¹⁹F MRI) hold promise, particularly for repeated imaging sessions because nonionizing radiation is used. Fluorine MRI detects molecular signatures by imaging a fluorinated tracer and takes advantage of the spatial and anatomical resolution afforded by MRI. This manuscript describes a fluorous polymeric nanoparticle that is capable of ¹⁹F MR imaging and fluorescent tracking for in vitro and in vivo monitoring of immune cells and cancerous tissue. The fluorous particle is derived from low-molecular-weight amphiphilic copolymers that self-assemble into micelles with a hydrodynamic diameter of 260 nm. The polymer is MR-active at concentrations as low as 2.1 mM in phantom imaging studies. The fluorinated particle demonstrated rapid uptake into immune cells for potential cell-tracking or delineation of the tumor microenvironment and showed negligible toxicity. Systemic administration indicates significant uptake into two tumor types, triple-negative breast cancer and ovarian cancer, with little accumulation in off-target tissue. These results indicate a robust platform imaging agent capable of immune cell tracking and systemic disease monitoring with exceptional uptake of the nanoparticle in multiple cancer models.

Self-Sorting and Coassembly of Fluorinated, Hydrogenated, and Hybrid Janus Dendrimers into Dendrimersomes

The modular synthesis of a library containing seven self-assembling amphiphilic Janus dendrimers is reported. Three of these molecules contain environmentally friendly chiral-racemic fluorinated dendrons in their hydrophobic part (RF), one contains achiral hydrogenated dendrons (RH), while one denoted hybrid Janus dendrimer, contains a combination of chiral-racemic fluorinated and achiral hydrogenated dendrons (RHF) in its hydrophobic part. Two Janus dendrimers contain either chiral-racemic fluorinated dendrons and a green fluorescent dye conjugated to its hydrophilic part (RF-NBD) or achiral hydrogenated and a red fluorescent dye in its hydrophilic part (RH-RhB). These RF, RH, and RHF Janus dendrimers self-assembled into unilamellar or onion-like soft vesicular dendrimersomes (DSs), with similar thicknesses to biological membranes by simple injection from ethanol solution into water or buffer. Since RF and RH dendrons are not miscible, RF-NBD and RH-RhB were employed to investigate by fluorescence microscopy the self-sorting and coassembly of RF and RH as well as of phospholipids into hybrid DSs mediated by the hybrid hydrogenated-fluorinated RHF Janus dendrimer. The hybrid RHF Janus dendrimer coassembled with both RF and RH. Three-component hybrid DSs containing RH, RF, and RHF were formed when the proportion of RHF was higher than 40%. With low concentration of RHF and in its absence, RH and RF self-sorted into individual RH or RF DSs. Phospholipids were also coassembled with hybrid RHF Janus dendrimers. The simple synthesis and self-assembly of DSs and hybrid DSs, their similar thickness with biological membranes and their imaging by fluorescence and (19)F-MRI make them important tools for synthetic biology.

Multifunctional hyperbranched polymers for CT/19F MRI bimodal molecular imaging

Multifunctional hyperbranched polymers containing iodine and fluorine were synthesised by reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerisation, and evaluated as novel contrast agents for CT/¹⁹F MRI bimodal molecular imaging.