Michael Addition Polymerization of Trifunctional Amine and Acrylic Monomer: A Versatile Platform for Development of Biomaterials

Lung-selective nucleic acid vectors generated by in vivo lung-targeting-protein decoration of polyplexes

Nucleic acid drugs show immense therapeutic potential, but achieving selective organ targeting (SORT) for pulmonary disease therapy remains a formidable challenge due to the high mortality rate caused by pulmonary embolism via intravenous administration or the mucus barrier in the respiratory tract via nebulized delivery. To meet this important challenge, we propose a new strategy to prepare lung-selective nucleic-acid vectors generated by in vivo decoration of lung-targeting proteins on bioreducible polyplexes. First, we synthesized polyamidoamines, named pabol and polylipo, to encapsulate and protect nucleic acids, forming polyamidoamines/mRNA polyplexes. Second, bovine serum albumin (BSA) was coated on the surface of these polyplexes, called BSA@polyplexes, including BSA@pabol polyplexes and BSA@polylipo polyplexes, to neutralize excess positive charge, thereby enhancing biosafety. Finally, after subcutaneous injection, proteins, especially vitronectin and fibronectins, attached to the polyplexes, resulting in the formation of lung-selective nucleic-acid vectors that achieve efficient lung targeting.

A Theoretical Investigation of the Polyaddition of an AB2+A2+B4 Monomer Mixture

Hyperbranched polymers (HBPs) are widely applied nowadays as functional materials for biomedicine needs, nonlinear optics, organic semiconductors, etc. One of the effective and promising ways to synthesize HBPs is a polyaddition of AB2+A2+B4 monomers that is generated in the A2+CB2, AA'+B3, A2+B'B2, and A2+C2+B3 systems or using other approaches. It is clear that all the foundational features of HBPs that are manufactured by a polyaddition reaction are defined by the component composition of the monomer mixture. For this reason, we have designed a structural kinetic model of AB2+A2+B4 monomer mixture polyaddition which makes it possible to predict the impact of the monomer mixture's composition on the molecular weight characteristics of hyperbranched polymers (number average (DPn) and weight average (DPw) degree of polymerization), as well as the degree of branching (DB) and gel point (pg). The suggested model also considers the possibility of a positive or negative substitution effect during polyaddition. The change in the macromolecule parameters of HBPs formed by polyaddition of AB2+A2+B4 monomers is described as an infinite system of kinetic equations. The solution for the equation system was found using the method of generating functions. The impact of both the component's composition and the substitution effect during the polyaddition of AB2+A2+B4 monomers on structural and molecular weight HBP characteristics was investigated. The suggested model is fairly versatile; it makes it possible to describe every possible case of polyaddition with various monomer combinations, such as A2+AB2, AB2+B4, AB2, or A2+B4. The influence of each monomer type on the main characteristics of hyperbranched polymers that are obtained by the polyaddition of AB2+A2+B4 monomers has been investigated. Based on the results obtained, an empirical formula was proposed to estimate the pg = pA during the polyaddition of an AB2+A2+B4 monomer mixture: pg = pA = (-0.53([B]0/[A]0)1/2 + 0.78)υAB2 + (1/3)1/2([B]0/[A]0)1/2, where (1/3)1/2([B]0/[A]0)1/2 is the Flory equation for the A2+B4 polyaddition, [A]0 and [B]0 are the A and B group concentration from A2 and B4, respectively, and υAB2 is the mole fraction of the AB2 monomer in the mixture. The equation obtained allows us to accurately predict the pg value, with an AB2 monomer content of up to 80%.

Hydroxyl-rich branched polycations for nucleic acid delivery

Recently, nucleic acid delivery has become an amazing route for the treatment of various malignant diseases, and polycationic vectors are attracting more and more attention among gene vectors. However, conventional polycationic vectors still face many obstacles in nucleic acid delivery, such as significant cytotoxicity, high protein absorption behavior, and unsatisfactory blood compatibility caused by a high positive charge density. To solve these problems, the fabrication of hydroxyl-rich branched polycationic vectors has been proposed. For the synthesis of hydroxyl-rich branched polycations, a one-pot method is considered as the preferred method due to its simple preparation process. In this review, typical one-pot methods for fabricating hydroxyl-rich polycations are presented. In particular, amine-epoxide ring-opening polymerization as a novel approach is mainly introduced. In addition, various therapeutic scenarios of hydroxyl-rich branched polycations via one-pot fabrication are also generalized. We believe that this review will motivate the optimized design of hydroxyl-rich branched polycations for potential nucleic acid delivery and their bio-applications.

Chitosan-Functionalized Poly(β-Amino Ester) Hybrid System for Gene Delivery in Vaginal Mucosal Epithelial Cells

Gene therapy displays great promise in the treatment of cervical cancer. The occurrence of cervical cancer is highly related to persistent human papilloma virus (HPV) infection. The HPV oncogene can be cleaved via gene editing technology to eliminate carcinogenic elements. However, the successful application of the gene therapy method depends on effective gene delivery into the vagina. To improve mucosal penetration and adhesion ability, quaternized chitosan was introduced into the poly(β-amino ester) (PBAE) gene-delivery system in the form of quaternized chitosan-g-PBAE (QCP). At a mass ratio of PBAE:QCP of 2:1, the polymers exhibited the highest green fluorescent protein (GFP) transfection efficiency in HEK293T and ME180 cells, which was 1.1 and 5.4 times higher than that of PEI 25 kD. At this mass ratio, PBAE-QCP effectively compressed the GFP into spherical polyplex nanoparticles (PQ-GFP NPs) with a diameter of 255.5 nm. In vivo results indicated that owing to the mucopenetration and adhesion capability of quaternized CS, the GFP transfection efficiency of the PBAE-QCP hybrid system was considerably higher than those of PBAE and PEI 25 kD in the vaginal epithelial cells of Sprague-Dawley rats. Furthermore, the new system demonstrated low toxicity and good safety, laying an effective foundation for its further application in gene therapy.

Extracellular vesicle biopotentiated hydrogels for diabetic wound healing: The art of living nanomaterials combined with soft scaffolds

Diabetic wounds (DWs) pose a major challenge for the public health system owing to their high incidence, complex pathogenesis, and long recovery time; thus, there is an urgent need to develop innovative therapies to accelerate the healing process of diabetic wounds. As natural nanovesicles, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are rich in sources with low immunogenicity and abundant nutritive molecules and exert potent therapeutic effects on diabetic wound healing. To avoid the rapid removal of EVs, a suitable delivery system is required for their controlled release. Owing to the advantages of high porosity, good biocompatibility, and adjustable physical and chemical properties of hydrogels, EV biopotentiated hydrogels can aid in achieving precise and favorable therapy against diabetic wounds. This review highlights the different design strategies, therapeutic effects, and mechanisms of EV biopotentiated hydrogels. We also discussed the future challenges and opportunities of using EV biopotentiated hydrogels for diabetic wound healing.

Sodium Trifluoroacetate mediated Copper-Catalyzed aza-Michael addition of α,β-unsaturated olefins with aromatic amines

We present a sodium trifluoroacetate (CF3CO2Na) mediated copper-catalyzed aza-Michael addition of aromatic amines with activated olefins under mild, aqueous reaction conditions. This simplistic protocol employs a copper catalyst (10 mol%) and water as solvent. This transformation occurs precisely with aromatic substituted amines containing both electron-donating (EDG) and electron-withdrawing (EWG) groups. A broad range of substrates were tested under the optimized conditions, which are producing good to moderate yields.

Branch Unit Distribution Matters for Gene Delivery

As a key nonviral gene therapy vector, poly(β-amino ester) (PAE) has demonstrated great potential for clinical application after two decades of development. However, even after extensive efforts in structural optimizations, including screening chemical composition, molecular weight (MW), terminal groups, and topology, their DNA delivery efficiency still lags behind that of viral vectors. To break through this bottleneck, in this work, a thorough investigation of highly branched PAEs (HPAEs) was conducted to correlate their fundamental internal structure with their gene transfection performance. We show that an essential structural factor, branch unit distribution (BUD), plays an important role for HPAE transfection capability and that HPAEs with a more uniform distribution of branch units display better transfection efficacy. By optimizing BUD, a high-efficiency HPAE that surpasses well-known commercial reagents (e.g., Lipofectamine 3000 (Lipo3000), jetPEI, and Xfect) can be generated. This work opens an avenue for the structural control and molecular design of high-performance PAE gene delivery vectors.

Fully Room Temperature Reprogrammable, Recyclable, and Photomobile Soft Actuators from Physically Cross-Linked Main-Chain Azobenzene Liquid Crystalline Polymers

Fully room temperature three-dimensional (3D) shape-reprogrammable, recyclable, and photomobile azobenzene (azo) polymer actuators hold much promise in many photoactuating applications, but their development is challenging. Herein, we report on the efficient synthesis of a series of main-chain azo liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs) with such performances via Michael addition polymerization. They have both ester groups and two kinds of hydrogen bond-forming groups (i.e., amide and secondary amino groups) and different flexible spacer length in the backbones. Such poly(ester-amide-secondary amine)s (PEAsAs) show low glass transition temperatures (T_g ≤ 18.4 °C), highly ordered smectic liquid crystalline phases, and reversible photoresponsivity. Their uniaxially oriented fibers fabricated via the melt spinning method exhibit good mechanical strength and photoinduced reversible bending/unbending and large stress at room temperature, which are largely influenced by the flexible spacer length of the polymers. Importantly, all these fibers can be easily reprogrammed under strain at 25 °C into stable fiber springs capable of showing a totally different photomobile mode (i.e., unwinding/winding), mainly owing to the presence of low T_g and both dynamic hydrogen bonding and stable crystalline domains (induced by the uniaxial drawing during the fiber formation). They can also be recycled from a solution at 25 °C. This work not only presents the first azo LCPs with 3D shape reprogrammability, recyclability, and photomobility at room temperature, but also provides some important knowledge of their structure-property relationship, which is useful for designing more advanced photodeformable azo polymers.

Delivery of Therapeutic miR-148b Mimic via Poly(β Amino Ester) Polyplexes for Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation and Apoptosis of A549 Cells

In this study, we utilized selectively modified, biodegradable polymer-based polyplexes to deliver custom, exogenous miR-148b mimics to induce apoptosis in human lung cancer (A549) cells. The gene regulatory effects of the payload miRNA mimics (miR-148b-3p) were first evaluated through bioinformatic analyses to uncover specific gene targets involved in critical carcinogenic pathways. Hyperbranched poly(β amino ester) polyplexes (hPBAE) loaded with custom miR-148b mimics were then developed for targeted therapy. When evaluated in vitro, these hPBAE-based polyplexes sustained high intracellular uptake, low cytotoxicity, and efficient escape from endosomes to deliver functionally intact miRNA mimics to the cytosol. High-resolution confocal microscopy revealed successful intracellular uptake, cell viability was assessed through qualitative fluorescence microscopy and fluorescence-based DNA quantification, and successful cytosolic delivery of intact miRNA mimics was evaluated using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to demonstrate target gene knockdown. The hPBAE-miRNA mimic polyplexes were shown to induce apoptosis among A549 cells through direct modulation of intracellular protein expression, targeting multiple potential carcinogenic pathways at the gene level. These results indicated that spatially controlled miR-148b mimic delivery can promote efficient cancer cell death in vitro and may lead to an enhanced therapeutic design for in vivo application.

Fully Room-Temperature Reprogrammable, Reprocessable, and Photomobile Soft Actuators from a High-Molecular-Weight Main-Chain Azobenzene Crystalline Poly(ester-amide)

Azobenzene (azo) polymer photoactuators with full room-temperature reprogrammability, reprocessability, and photomobility are highly desirable for large-scale applications, but their development remains a daunting challenge. Herein, a strategy is first presented for fabricating such advanced photoactuators from a high-molecular-weight main-chain azo crystalline poly(ester-amide) (PEA) prepared via Michael addition polymerization. This azo PEA can be readily processed into both physically cross-linked, uniaxially oriented fibers and films with high mechanical robustness and reversible photoinduced bending/unbending at room temperature. Importantly, the presence of both amide unit-induced hydrogen bonding and crystalline domains in such films and fibers endows them with dynamic, yet stable cross-linking points, which enable their easy reprogrammability under strain at room temperature into various three-dimensional (3D) shapes (e.g., film helicoid and spiral ribbon, fiber spring) capable of showing completely different shape-dependent photomobile modes. In particular, these reshaped photoactuators can maintain their accurate 3D shapes and highly reversible photoinduced motions even after being kept at 80 °C for 20 days or at 100 °C for 2 days. They can also be reprocessed and recycled from solution at room temperature. Such a multifunctional main-chain azo crystalline PEA can serve as a versatile platform for fabricating various photoactuators with desired 3D shapes and motion modes under mild ambient conditions.

Enhancing the performances of physically cross-linked photodeformable main-chain azobenzene poly(ester-amide)s via chemical structure engineering

The development of physically cross-linked photodeformable main-chain azobenzene poly(ester-amide)s with enhanced performances via chemical structure engineering and obtention of their detailed structure–property relationship are first described.

Machine Learning-Driven Biomaterials Evolution

Biomaterials is an exciting and dynamic field, which uses a collection of diverse materials to achieve desired biological responses. While there is constant evolution and innovation in materials with time, biomaterials research has been hampered by the relatively long development period required. In recent years, driven by the need to accelerate materials development, the applications of machine learning in materials science has progressed in leaps and bounds. The combination of machine learning with high-throughput theoretical predictions and high-throughput experiments (HTE) has shifted the traditional Edisonian (trial and error) paradigm to a data-driven paradigm. In this review, each type of biomaterial and their key properties and use cases are systematically discussed, followed by how machine learning can be applied in the development and design process. The discussions are classified according to various types of materials used including polymers, metals, ceramics, and nanomaterials, and implants using additive manufacturing. Last, the current gaps and potential of machine learning to further aid biomaterials discovery and application are also discussed.

Bioreducible, arginine-rich polydisulfide-based siRNA nanocomplexes with excellent tumor penetration for efficient gene silencing

RNA interference (RNAi) technology has great potential in cancer therapy, e.g., small interfering RNA (siRNA) can be exploited to silence specific oncogenes related to tumor growth and progression. However, it is critical to achieve high transfection efficiency while reducing cytotoxicity. In this paper, we report an siRNA delivery strategy targeting the oncogene KRAS based on arginine-modified poly(disulfide amine)/siRNA nanocomplexes. The poly(disulfide amine) is synthesized via aza-Michael polyaddition followed by the introduction of arginine groups onto its backbone to afford poly((N,N'-bis(acryloyl)cystamine-co-ethylenediamine)-g-Nω-p-tosyl-l-arginine) (PBR) polycations. Thus multiple interactions including electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bonding and a hydrophobic effect are introduced simultaneously between PBR and siRNA or cell membranes to improve transfection efficiency. By optimizing the grafting density of arginine groups, PBR/siRNA nanocomplexes achieve high cellular uptake efficiency, successful endosomal/lysosomal escape, and rapid biodegradation in the presence of high GSH concentration in the cytoplasm, and finally release siRNA to activate the RNAi mechanism. Additionally, compared to commercially available PEI 25K, PBR/siRNA nanocomplexes possess a significantly increased gene silencing effect on human pancreatic cancer cells (PANC-1) with decreased cytotoxicity and enhanced tumor penetration ability in PANC-1 multicellular spheroids in vitro. Overall, with both GSH-responsiveness and excellent tumor penetration, this safe and efficient poly(disulfide amine)-based siRNA delivery system is expected to provide a new strategy for gene therapy of pancreatic cancer and other stromal-rich tumors.

CRISPR-cas9 genome editing delivery systems for targeted cancer therapy

The prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas systems could be applied as revolutionized genome editing tool in live cells of various species to modify, visualize and identify definite sequences of DNA and RNA. CRISPR-Cas could edit the genome by homology-directed repair and non-homologous end joining mechanisms. Furthermore, DNA-targeting modification by CRISPR-Cas methodology provides opportunity for diagnosis, therapy and the genetic disorders investigation. Here, we summarized delivery systems employed for CRISPR-Cas9 for genome editing. Then preclinical studies of the CRISPR-Cas9-based therapeutics will be discussed considering the associated challenges and developments in its translation to clinic for cancer therapy.

Hyperbranched poly(β-amino ester) based polyplex nanopaticles for delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 system and treatment of HPV infection associated cervical cancer

Persistent high-risk HPV infection is the main factor for cervical cancer. HPV E7 oncogene plays an important role in HPV carcinogenesis. Down-regulation of E7 oncogene expression could induce growth inhibition in HPV-positive cells and thus treats HPV related cervical cancer. Here we developed a non-virus gene vector based on poly(amide-amine)-poly(β-amino ester) hyperbranched copolymer (hPPC) for the delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 system to specifically cleave HPV E7 oncogene in HPV-positive cervical cancer cells. The diameter of polyplex nanoparticles (NPs) formed by hPPCs/linear poly(β-amino ester) (PBAE) and plasmids were approximately 300 nm. These hPPCs/PBAE-green fluorescence protein plasmids polyplex NPs showed high transfection efficiency and low toxicity in cells and mouse organs. By cleaving HPV16 E7 oncogene, reducing the expression of HPV16 E7 protein and increasing intracellular retinoblastoma 1 (RB1) amount, hPPCs/PBAE-CRISPR/Cas9 therapeutic plasmids polyplex NPs, especially highly branched hPPC1-plasmids polyplex NPs, exhibited strong growth inhibition of cervical cancer cells in vitro and xenograft tumors in nude mice. Together, the hPPCs/PBAE polyplex NPs to deliver HPV16 E7 targeted CRISPR/Cas9 system in this study could potentially be applied to treat HPV-related cervical cancer.

Cdk5 knocking out mediated by CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing for PD-L1 attenuation and enhanced antitumor immunity

Blocking the programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) on tumor cells with monoclonal antibody therapy has emerged as powerful weapon in cancer immunotherapy. However, only a minority of patients presented immune responses in clinical trials. To develop an alternative treatment method based on immune checkpoint blockade, we designed a novel and efficient CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing system delivered by cationic copolymer aPBAE to downregulate PD-L1 expression on tumor cells via specifically knocking out Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) gene in vivo. The expression of PD-L1 on tumor cells was significantly attenuated by knocking out Cdk5, leading to effective tumor growth inhibition in murine melanoma and lung metastasis suppression in triple-negative breast cancer. Importantly, we demonstrated that aPBAE/Cas9-Cdk5 treatment elicited strong T cell-mediated immune responses in tumor microenvironment that the population of CD8+ T cells was significantly increased while regulatory T cells (Tregs) was decreased. It may be the first case to exhibit direct in vivo PD-L1 downregulation via CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technology for cancer therapy. It will provide promising strategy for preclinical antitumor treatment through the combination of nanotechnology and genome engineering.

Preparation of hyperbranched polymers by oxa-Michael addition polymerization

Hyperbranched polymers with high molecular weights were synthesized by t-BuP₂-catalyzed oxa-Michael addition polymerization of trifunctional hydroxyl and diacrylate monomers.

Catalyst-free, aza-Michael polymerization of hydrazides: polymerizability, kinetics, and mechanistic origin of an α-effect

Despite the powerful nature of the aza-Michael reaction for generating C-N linkages and bioactive moieties, the bis-Michael addition of 1° amines remains ineffective for the synthesis of functional, step-growth polymers due to the drastic reduction in reactivity of the resulting 2° amine mono-addition adduct. In this study, a wide range of commercial hydrazides are shown to effectively undergo the bis-Michael reaction with divinyl sulfone (DVS) and 1,6-hexanediol diacrylate (HDA) under catalyst-free, thermal conditions to afford moderate to high molecular weight polymers with M n = 3.8-34.5 kg mol-1. The hydrazide-Michael reactions exhibit two distinctive, conversion-dependent kinetic regimes that are 2nd-order overall, in contrast to the 3rd-order nature of amines previously reported. The mono-addition rate constant was found to be 37-fold greater than that of the bis-addition at 80 °C for the reaction between benzhydrazide and DVS. A significant majority (12 of 15) of the hydrazide derivatives used here show excellent bis-Michael reactivity and achieve >97% conversions after 5 days. This behavior is consistent with calculations that show minimal variance of electron density on the N-nucleophile among the derivatives studied. Reactivity differences between hydrazides and hexylamine are also explored. Overall, the difference in reactivity between hydrazides and amines is attributed to the adjacent nitrogen atom in hydrazides that acts as an efficient hydrogen-bond donor that facilitates intramolecular proton-transfer following the formation of the zwitterion intermediate. This effect not only activates the Michael acceptor but also coordinates with additional Michael acceptors to form an intermolecular reactant complex.

Bioreducible and acid-labile polydiethylenetriamines with sequential degradability for efficient transgelin-2 siRNA delivery

The transgelin-2 (TAGLN2) protein plays an important role in multidrug resistance in human breast cancer. siRNA mediated gene silencing of TAGLN2 is a promising strategy for paclitaxel resistance reversal in breast cancer. In this study, a series of bioreducible and acid-labile polydiethylenetriamines (PDs) with different proportions of cross-linkers were synthesized. TAGLN2 siRNA was condensed by PDs to form dual-responsive nanocomplexes, and these nanocomplexes were hypothesized to partially degrade in the acidic environment of endosomes, and then completely degrade in the reducing environment of the cytoplasm to release siRNA. It was found that PDs have good water solubility, acid-base buffering capacity, suitable degradability and high biocompatibility. Moreover, PDCKM can deliver TAGLN2 siRNA into MCF-7/PTX cells and inhibit the expression of TAGLN2 even better than PEI 25k. Besides, paclitaxel showed higher cytotoxicity in cells incubated with PDCKM/TAGLN2 siRNA nanocomplexes. These results suggested that PDs have great potential for safe and efficient siRNA delivery to reverse paclitaxel resistance in breast cancer.

Direct Csp3-H methylenation of 2-arylacetamides using DMF/Me2NH-BH3 as the methylene source

A direct Csp3-H methylenation of 2-arylacetamides using DMF/Me2NH-BH3 as the methylene source was developed. The formyl group of DMF delivered the carbon and one hydrogen atoms, and the Me2NH-BH3 donated the remaining one hydrogen atom. This protocol offers a new alternative to make useful 2-arylacrylamides from simple starting materials.

Tumor microenvironment-responsive docetaxel-loaded micelle combats metastatic breast cancer

Efficient tumor-targeting drug delivery systems are urgently needed for treating metastatic breast cancer. In this work, a docetaxel (DTX)-loaded micelle (pDM) as the tumor-microenvironment-responsive delivery platform is developed. The micelle is composed of a pH-sensitive amphiphilic copolymer, poly((1,4-butanediol)-diacrylate-β-N,N-diisopropylethylenediamine)-polyethyleneimine (BD-PEI), and a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-responsive polymer, poly((1,4-butanediol)-diacrylate-β-N,N-diisopropylethylenediamine)-peptide-polyethylene glycol (PEG) (BD-peptide-PEG). The PEG block of BD-peptide-PEG will be split by MMPs at the tumor microenvironment, which leads to the change of the surface charge and particle size of the micelle to more positive and smaller one. Owing to this transformation and enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, pDM delivers more DTX into tumor tissues and is internalized more efficiently by tumor cells than the non-MMP-sensitive micelles in the 4T1 tumor-bearing mice model. In addition, DTX is released in acidic endo/lysosomes due to the dissociation of the micelle, triggered by the protonation of the hydrophobic block of BD-PEI. As a result, the DTX-loaded micelle inhibits primary tumor growth and pulmonary metastasis effectively. Thus, this pH/MMP-dual-sensitive drug delivery system, which simultaneously attains three keypoints: prolonged circulation time, directional and efficient uptake into tumor cells, and speedy intracellular drug release, is a promising strategy for metastatic breast cancer therapy.

Poly(β-Amino Esters): Synthesis, Formulations, and Their Biomedical Applications

Poly(β-amino ester) (abbreviated as PBAE or PAE) refers to a polymer synthesized from an acrylate and an amine by Michael addition and has properties inherent to tertiary amines and esters, such as pH responsiveness and biodegradability. The versatility of building blocks provides a library of polymers with miscellaneous physicochemical and mechanical properties. When used alone or together with other materials, PBAEs can be fabricated into different formulations in order to fulfill various requirements in drug delivery (for instance, gene, anticancer drugs, and antimicrobials delivery) and natural complex mimicry (nanochaperones). This progress report discusses the recent developments in design, synthesis, formulations, and applications of PBAEs in biomedical fields and provides a perspective view for the future of the PBAEs.

Tetraphenylethene decorated with disulfide-functionalized hyperbranched poly(amido amine)s as metal/organic solvent-free turn-on AIE probes for biothiol determination

Novel hyperbranched poly(amido amine)s AIE probes were developed for organic solvent-free biothiol sensing.

Mild polyaddition and polyalkylation based on the carbon–carbon bond formation reaction of active methylene

The Michael addition and alkylation reaction of active methylene compounds (AMCs) with two active hydrogens had been investigated extensively in organic chemistry, while the polymerization of AMCs had few studies. Herein, we reported active methylene-based polyaddition and polyalkylation catalyzed via an organic superbase under ambient conditions. A model polymerization was first conducted between ethylene glycol diacrylate (EGDA) and methyl cyanoacetate (MCA). The molecular weight (M_w) of the model polymer was up to 50 500 g mol⁻¹ with a high yield (99%). Eight AMCs were selected and a high-throughput parallel synthesizing instrument (HTPSI) was used to synthesize semi-library polymers of AMCs and EGDA via a Michael type polyaddition. The obtained AMC-based polymers had low cell cytotoxicity. Elastomers with cyanogen groups could be prepared using trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA) as a crosslinker. Furthermore, three dihalogen compounds were explored to polymerize with MCA and malononitrile via alkylation reactions. The pendent cyanogen or ester groups of the polymers could be reduced by lithium aluminum hydride. Novel polymer families were constructed based on the polyaddition and polyalkylation of AMCs.

Active methylene-based polyaddition and polyalkylation catalyzed via an organic superbase were studied in a high-throughput parallel synthesizing instrument.

Fabrication and characterization of thiol-triacrylate polymer via Michael addition reaction for biomedical applications

Thiol-acrylate polymers have therapeutic potential as biocompatible scaffolds for bone tissue regeneration. Synthesis of a novel cyto-compatible and biodegradable polymer composed of trimethylolpropane ethoxylate triacrylate-trimethylolpropane tris (3-mercaptopropionate) (TMPeTA-TMPTMP) using a simple amine-catalyzed Michael addition reaction is reported in this study. This study explores the impact of molecular weight and crosslink density on the cyto-compatibility of human adipose derived mesenchymal stem cells. Eight groups were prepared with two different average molecular weights of trimethylolpropane ethoxylate triacrylate (TMPeTA 692 and 912) and four different concentrations of diethylamine (DEA) as catalyst. The materials were physically characterized by mechanical testing, wettability, mass loss, protein adsorption and surface topography. Cyto-compatibility of the polymeric substrates was evaluated by LIVE/DEAD staining^® and DNA content assay of cultured human adipose derived stem cells (hASCs) on the samples over over days. Surface topography studies revealed that TMPeTA (692) samples have island pattern features whereas TMPeTA (912) polymers showed pitted surfaces. Water contact angle results showed a significant difference between TMPeTA (692) and TMPeTA (912) monomers with the same DEA concentration. Decreased protein adsorption was observed on TMPeTA (912) -16% DEA compared to other groups. Fluorescent microscopy also showed distinct hASCs attachment behavior between TMPeTA (692) and TMPeTA (912), which is due to their different surface topography, protein adsorption and wettability. Our finding suggested that this thiol-acrylate based polymer is a versatile, cyto-compatible material for tissue engineering applications with tunable cell attachment property based on surface characteristics.

Three-Dimensional (3D) Printed Microneedles for Microencapsulated Cell Extrusion

Cell-hydrogel based therapies offer great promise for wound healing. The specific aim of this study was to assess the viability of human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells immobilized in atomized alginate capsules (3.5% (w/v) alginate, d = 225 µm ± 24.5 µm) post-extrusion through a three-dimensional (3D) printed methacrylate-based custom hollow microneedle assembly (circular array of 13 conical frusta) fabricated using stereolithography. With a jetting reliability of 80%, the solvent-sterilized device with a root mean square roughness of 158 nm at the extrusion nozzle tip (d = 325 μm) was operated at a flowrate of 12 mL/min. There was no significant difference between the viability of the sheared and control samples for extrusion times of 2 h (p = 0.14, α = 0.05) and 24 h (p = 0.5, α = 0.05) post-atomization. Factoring the increase in extrusion yield from 21.2% to 56.4% attributed to hydrogel bioerosion quantifiable by a loss in resilience from 5470 (J/m³) to 3250 (J/m³), there was no significant difference in percentage relative payload (p = 0.2628, α = 0.05) when extrusion occurred 24 h (12.2 ± 4.9%) when compared to 2 h (9.9 ± 2.8%) post-atomization. Results from this paper highlight the feasibility of encapsulated cell extrusion, specifically protection from shear, through a hollow microneedle assembly reported for the first time in literature.

Facile Synthesis of Hyperbranched Polymers by Sequential Polycondensation

Hyperbranched polymers are an important class of soft nanomaterial, but the synthesis of hyperbranched polymers with well-defined dendritic structure from readily available monomers remains a challenge in polymer chemistry. We herein report a sequential polycondensation method for the one-pot synthesis of hyperbranched polymers with tunable structure and high degree of branching from commercial available monomers. Specifically, in the polycondensation process of equimolar difunctional haloalkane (A₂-type monomers) and trifunctional dihydroxybenzoic acid (CB₂-type monomers) using K₂CO₃ as the base, the aliphatic nucleophilic substitution reactivity sequence of the functional groups derived from CB₂ monomers is C > second B > first B ≫ original B, thereby producing hyperbranched poly(ester ether)s with high degree of branching (DB > 0.6). Moreover, the surface functionality of the hyperbranched poly(ester ether)s could be facilely tailored by just introducing A-type monofunctional reagents into the one-pot A₂ + CB₂ polymerization system.

Poly(β-amino ester)-co-poly(caprolactone) Terpolymers as Nonviral Vectors for mRNA Delivery In Vitro and In Vivo

The production of new proteins with messenger RNA (mRNA) has gained a broad interest due to its potential for addressing a wide range of diseases. Here, the design and characterization of novel ionizable poly(β-amino ester)-co-poly(caprolactone) terpolymers, synthesized via the combination of the ring opening polymerization and the Michael step-growth polymerization, are reported. The versatility of this method is demonstrated by varying the number of caprolactone units attached to each poly(β-amino ester) (PBAE) terpolymer. The ability of the novel poly-caprolactone (PCL)-based PBAE materials to deliver mRNA is shown to depend on the physiochemical characteristics of the material, such as lipophilicity, as well as the formulation method used to complex the polymer with the oligonucleotide. This latter variable represents a previously unstudied aspect of PBAE library screens that can play an important role in identifying true top candidates for nucleic acid delivery. The most stable terpolymer is injected intravenously (IV) in mice and shows a transfection efficacy several times higher than the polyethylenimine (PEI) which is focused in the spleen, opening the possibility to use these biodegradable carriers in the intravenous delivery of antigen-encoding mRNA for cancer immunotherapy and vaccination.

Photo Processing for Biomedical Hydrogels Design and Functionality: A Review

A large number of opportunities for biomedical hydrogel design and functionality through photo-processing have stretched the limits of innovation. As both photochemical understanding and engineering technologies continue to develop, more complicated geometries and spatiotemporal manipulations can be realized through photo-exposure, producing multifunctional hydrogels with specific chemical, biological and physical characteristics for the achievement of biomedical goals. This report describes the role that light has recently played in the synthesis and functionalization of biomedical hydrogels and primarily the design of photoresponsive hydrogels via different chemical reactions (photo crosslinking and photo degradation) and conventional light curing processes (micropatterning, stereolithography and two/multiphoton techniques) as well as typical biomedical applications of the hydrogels (cell culture, differentiation and in vivo vascularization) and their promising future.

Evolution of macromolecular complexity in drug delivery systems

Designing therapeutics is a process with many challenges. Even if the first hurdle - designing a drug that modulates the action of a particular biological target in vitro - is overcome, selective delivery to that target in vivo presents a major barrier. Side-effects can, in many cases, result from the need to use higher doses without targeted delivery. However, the established use of macromolecules to encapsulate or conjugate drugs can provide improved delivery, and stands to enable better therapeutic outcomes. In this Review, we discuss how drug delivery approaches have evolved alongside our ability to prepare increasingly complex macromolecular architectures. We examine how this increased complexity has overcome the challenges of drug delivery and discuss its potential for fulfilling unmet needs in nanomedicine.