Discovery of High-Entropy Oxide Electrocatalysts: From Thin-Film Material Libraries to Particles

Oriented catalysis through chaos: high-entropy spinels in heterogeneous reactions

High-entropy spinel (HES) compounds, as a typical class of high-entropy materials (HEMs), represent a novel frontier in the search for next-generation catalysts. Their unique blend of high entropy, compositional diversity, and structural complexity offers unprecedented opportunities to tailor catalyst properties for enhanced performance (i.e., activity, selectivity, and stability) in heterogeneous reactions. However, there is a gap in a critical review of the catalytic applications of HESs, especially focusing on an in-depth discussion of the structure-property-performance relationships. Therefore, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the development of HESs in catalysis, including definition, structural features, synthesis, characterization, and catalytic regimes. The relationships between the unique structure, favorable properties, and improved performance of HES-driven catalysis are highlighted. Finally, an outlook is presented which provides guidance for unveiling the complexities of HESs and advancing the field toward the rational design of efficient energy and environmental materials.

Dynamic evolution processes in electrocatalysis: structure evolution, characterization and regulation

Reactions on electrocatalytic interfaces often involve multiple processes, including the diffusion, adsorption, and conversion of reaction species and the interaction between reactants and electrocatalysts. Generally, these processes are constantly changing rather than being in a steady state. Recently, dynamic evolution processes on electrocatalytic interfaces have attracted increasing attention owing to their significant roles in catalytic reaction kinetics. In this review, we aim to provide insights into the dynamic evolution processes in electrocatalysis to emphasize the importance of unsteady-state processes in electrocatalysis. Specifically, the dynamic structure evolution of electrocatalysts, methods for the characterization of the dynamic evolution and the strategies for the regulation of the dynamic evolution for improving electrocatalytic performance are summarized. Finally, the conclusion and outlook on the research on dynamic evolution processes in electrocatalysis are presented. It is hoped that this review will provide a deeper understanding of dynamic evolution in electrocatalysis, and studies of electrocatalytic reaction processes and kinetics on the unsteady-state microscopic spatial and temporal scales will be given more attention.

Self-formation of compositionally complex surface oxides on high entropy alloys observed by accelerated atom probe tomography: a route to sustainable catalysts

Sustainable catalysts rely on abundant elements which are prone to oxidation. A route to non-noble electrocatalysts is opened by directing the formation of unavoidable surface oxides towards creating a few atomic layers of an active and stable electrocatalyst, which is in direct contact with its metallic, conducting support. This is enabled by combining possibilities of compositionally complex solid solutions with accelerated atomic-scale surface characterization. Surface composition changes from the as-synthesized state to states after exposure to the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) are investigated using a Cantor-alloy-catalyst-coated tip array for atom probe tomography (APT): The film on top of the tip forms a nanoreactor which enables acquisition of intrinsic properties. The as-deposited film has an around 3 nm thick native oxide; short and prolonged OER exposures result in an oxygen-influenced surface layer with lower oxidation depth and altered metal composition. This shows that as-synthesized complex compositions can be used to obtain active and stable surface oxides under electrochemical load, while their surface evolution is observed by accelerated APT.

Long-Range SECCM Enables High-Throughput Electrochemical Screening of High Entropy Alloy Electrocatalysts at Up-To-Industrial Current Densities

High-entropy alloys (HEAs), especially in the form of compositional complex solid solutions (CCSS), have gained attention in the field of electrocatalysis. However, exploring their vast composition space concerning their electrocatalytic properties imposes significant challenges. Scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) offers high-speed electrochemical analysis on surface areas with a lateral resolution down to tens of nm. However, high-precision piezo positioners often used for the motion of the tip limit the area of SECCM scans to the motion range of the piezo positioners which is typically a few tens of microns. To bridge this experimental gap, the study proposes a long-range SECCM system with a rapid gas-exchange environmental cell for high-throughput electrochemical characterization of 100 mm diameter HEA thin-film material libraries (ML) obtained by combinatorial co-sputtering. Due to the gas-liquid interface at the positioned SECCM droplet on the sample, high-throughput evaluation under industrial current density conditions becomes feasible. This allows the direct correlation between electrocatalytic activity and material composition with high statistical reliability. The multidimensional data obtained accelerates materials discovery, development, and optimization.

Novel High-Entropy FeCoNiMoZn-Layered Hydroxide as an Efficient Electrocatalyst for the Oxygen Evolution Reaction

The exploration of catalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) with high activity and acceptable price is essential for water splitting to hydrogen generation. High-entropy materials (HEMs) have aroused increasing interest in the field of electrocatalysis due to their unusual physicochemical properties. In this work, we reported a novel FeCoNiMoZn-OH high entropy hydroxide (HEH)/nickel foam (NF) synthesized by a facile pulsed electrochemical deposition method at room temperature. The FeCoNiMoZn-OH HEH displays a 3D porous nanosheet morphology and polycrystalline structure, which exhibits extraordinary OER activity in alkaline media, including much lower overpotential (248 mV at 10 mA cm-2) and Tafel slope (30 mV dec-1). Furthermore, FeCoNiMoZn-OH HEH demonstrates excellent OER catalytic stability. The enhanced catalytic performance of the FeCoNiMoZn-OH HEH primarily contributed to the porous morphology and the positive synergistic effect between Mo and Zn. This work provides a novel insight into the design of HEMs in catalytic application.

Stability of Bimetallic PtxRuy - From Model Surfaces to Nanoparticulate Electrocatalysts

Fundamental research campaigns in electrocatalysis often involve the use of model systems, such as single crystals or magnetron-sputtered thin films (single metals or metal alloys). The downsides of these approaches are that oftentimes only a limited number of compositions are picked and tested (guided by chemical intuition) and that the validity of trends is not verified under operating conditions typically present in real devices. These together can lead to deficient conclusions, hampering the direct application of newly discovered systems in real devices. In this contribution, the stability of magnetron-sputtered bimetallic PtxRuy thin film electrocatalysts (0 at. % to 100 at. % Ru content) along with three commercially available carbon-supported counterparts (50-67 at. % Ru content) was mapped under electrocatalytic conditions in acidic electrolytes using online ICP-MS. We found several differences between the two systems in the amount of metals dissolved along with the development of the morphology and composition. While the Pt-rich PtxRuy compositions remained unchanged, 30-50 nm diameter surface pits were detected in the case of the Ru-rich sputtered thin films. Contrastingly, the surface of the carbon-supported NPs enriched in Pt accompanied by the leaching of a significant amount of Ru from the alloy structure was observed. Change in morphology was accompanied by a mass loss reaching around 1-2 wt % in the case of the sputtered samples and almost 10 wt % for the NPs. Since PtxRuy has prime importance in driving alcohol oxidation reactions, the stability of all investigated alloys was screened in the presence of isopropanol. While Pt dissolution was marginally affected by the presence of isopropanol, several times higher Ru dissolution was detected, especially in the case of the Ru-rich compositions. Our results underline that trends in terms of electrocatalytic activity and stability cannot always be transferred from model samples to systems that are closer to the ones applied in real devices.

Questing for High-Performance Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Evolution Reaction: Importance of Chemical Complexity, Active Phase, and Surface-Adsorbed Species

Rational design of advanced electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is of vital importance for the development of sustainable energy. Entropy engineering is emerging as a promising approach for the design of efficient OER electrocatalysts. However, other multi-anion/cation electrocatalysts with compositional complexity, particularly the medium-entropy and other non-equimolar cation/anion complex electrocatalysts, have not received noteworthy attention. In this perspective, we review and highlight the importance of compositionally complex catalysts and propose a concept of chemical complexity to correlate the OER catalytic activity with the contributions from the pairwise cation-anion interactions. Then, we offer a new view on the active catalytic sites being the hydroxylated reacting interface in an alkaline solution. Further, we argue that the common discrepancies between computationally predicted OER activities and experimental results stem from lack of considerations of surface-adsorbed species in modeling the active catalytic phases or sites. This perspective would facilitate achieving a renewed and profound understanding of the OER mechanism and promote efficient design of OER electrocatalysts for renewable energy conversion and storage.

Acidic Hydrogen Evolution Electrocatalysis at High-Entropy Alloys Correlates with its Composition-Dependent Potential of Zero Charge

The vast possibilities in the elemental combinations of high-entropy alloys (HEAs) make it essential to discover activity descriptors for establishing rational electrocatalyst design principles. Despite the increasing attention on the potential of zero charge (PZC) of hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) electrocatalyst, neither the PZC of HEAs nor the impact of the PZC on the HER activity at HEAs has been described. Here, we use scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) to determine the PZC and the HER activities of various elemental compositions of a Pt-Pd-Ru-Ir-Ag thin-film HEA materials library (HEA-ML) with high statistical reliability. Interestingly, the PZC of Pt-Pd-Ru-Ir-Ag is linearly correlated with its composition-weighted average work function. The HER current density in acidic media positively correlates with the PZC, which can be explained by the preconcentration of H+ in the electrical double layer at potentials negative of the PZC.