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Peco JD, Thouin H, Esbrí JM, Campos-Rodríguez HR, García-Noguero EM, Breeze D, Villena J, Gloaguen E, Higueras PL, Battaglia-Brunet F. Mobility of antimony in contrasting surface environments of a mine site: influence of redox conditions and microbial communities. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:105808-105828. [PMID: 37721674 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-29734-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
Microbial processes can influence the complex geochemical behaviour of the toxic metalloid antimony (Sb) in mining environments. The present study is aimed to evaluate the influence of microbial communities on the mobility of Sb from solid phases to water in different compartments and redox conditions of a mining site in southwest (SW) Spain. Samples of surface materials presenting high Sb concentrations, from two weathered mining waste dumps, and an aquatic sediment were incubated in slurries comparing oxic and anoxic conditions. The initial microbial communities of the three materials strongly differed. Incubations induced an increase of microbial biomass and an evolution of the microbial communities' structures and compositions, which diverged in different redox conditions. The presence of active bacteria always influenced the mobility of Sb, except in the neutral pH waste incubated in oxic conditions. The effect of active microbial activities in oxic conditions was dependent on the material: Sb oxic release was biologically amplified with the acidic waste, but attenuated with the sediment. Different bacterial genera involved in Sb, Fe and S oxidation or reduction were present and/or grew during incubation of each material. The results highlighted the wide diversity of microbial communities and metabolisms at the small geographic scale of a mining site and their strong implication in Sb mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Daniel Peco
- Instituto de Geología Aplicada, Escuela Universitaria Politécnica de Almadén, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Plaza Manuel Meca, Ciudad Real, 13400, Almadén, Spain
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Ciudad Real, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ronda de Calatrava 7, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Hugues Thouin
- BRGM, 3 Av. Claude Guillemin, 45060, Orléans, France
| | - José María Esbrí
- Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología, Facultad de Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Eva Maria García-Noguero
- Instituto de Geología Aplicada, Escuela Universitaria Politécnica de Almadén, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Plaza Manuel Meca, Ciudad Real, 13400, Almadén, Spain
| | | | - Jaime Villena
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Ciudad Real, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ronda de Calatrava 7, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Eric Gloaguen
- CNRS, BRGM, ISTO, UMR 7327, Université d'Orléans, 45071, Orléans, France
| | - Pablo Leon Higueras
- Instituto de Geología Aplicada, Escuela Universitaria Politécnica de Almadén, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Plaza Manuel Meca, Ciudad Real, 13400, Almadén, Spain
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Cen L, Cheng H, Liu Q, Wang S, Wang X. Arsenic release from arsenopyrite weathering in acid mine drainage: Kinetics, transformation, and effect of biochar. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 170:107558. [PMID: 36202015 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Arsenopyrite (FeAsS) oxidative dissolution provides an important source for the occurrence of high arsenic in acid mine drainage (AMD). Biochar is a potent material that can dramatically sequestrate an array of heavy metals in water. However, little is known about the role of biochar on the fate of As from arsenopyrite in AMD. This study investigates the effects of biochar concentrations, AMD acidities, and temperatures on the release of As from arsenopyrite in a simulated AMD over a range of environmentally relevant conditions. Results show that biochar inhibits As release and further acidification without changing the arsenopyrite weathering mechanism. Arsenopyrite is first oxidized to Fe(II), As(III) and S0 and ultimately oxidized to Fe(III), As(V) and SO42-, respectively. Higher concentration, temperature or higher acidity promotes the arsenic release rate. Electrochemical studies showed that biochar inhibited As release and acidification for reduced the charge transfer resistance at the double layer and film resistance at the passivation layer, which was mainly attributed to Fe(III) ions in AMD being adsorbed, oxidized, and As complexed to biochar-Fe-As(V). This study reveals the release mechanism of As from arsenopyrite weathering in AMD and suggests the applicability of biochar in mitigating arsenic pollution and further acidification in sulfide mineral mine drainage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Cen
- Key Laboratory of High-temperature and High-pressure Study of the Earth's Interior, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China
| | - Hongguang Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China
| | - Qingyou Liu
- Key Laboratory of High-temperature and High-pressure Study of the Earth's Interior, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China.
| | - Shuai Wang
- Key Laboratory of High-temperature and High-pressure Study of the Earth's Interior, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China
| | - Xi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China
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DeVore CL, Rodriguez-Freire L, Villa N, Soleimanifar M, Gonzalez-Estrella J, Ali AMS, Lezama-Pacheco J, Ducheneaux C, Cerrato JM. Mobilization of As, Fe, and Mn from Contaminated Sediment in Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditions: Chemical or Microbiological Triggers? ACS EARTH & SPACE CHEMISTRY 2022; 6:1644-1654. [PMID: 36238447 PMCID: PMC9555341 DOI: 10.1021/acsearthspacechem.1c00370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
We integrated aqueous chemistry, spectroscopy, and microbiology techniques to identify chemical and microbial processes affecting the release of arsenic (As), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) from contaminated sediments exposed to aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The sediments were collected from Cheyenne River Sioux Tribal lands in South Dakota, which has dealt with mining legacy for several decades. The range of concentrations of total As measured from contaminated sediments was 96 to 259 mg kg-1, which co-occurs with Fe (21 000-22 005 mg kg-1) and Mn (682-703 mg kg-1). The transition from aerobic to anaerobic redox conditions yielded the highest microbial diversity, and the release of the highest concentrations of As, Fe, and Mn in batch experiments reacted with an exogenous electron donor (glucose). The reduction of As was confirmed by XANES analyses when transitioning from aerobic to anaerobic conditions. In contrast, the releases of As, Fe and Mn after a reaction with phosphate was at least 1 order of magnitude lower compared with experiments amended with glucose. Our results indicate that mine waste sediments amended with an exogenous electron donor trigger microbial reductive dissolution caused by anaerobic respiration. These dissolution processes can affect metal mobilization in systems transitioning from aerobic to anaerobic conditions in redox gradients. Our results are relevant for natural systems, for surface and groundwater exchange, or other systems in which metal cycling is influenced by chemical and biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cherie L DeVore
- Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, MSC01 1070, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States; Department of Earth Systems Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Lucia Rodriguez-Freire
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Noelani Villa
- Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, MSC01 1070, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Maedeh Soleimanifar
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Jorge Gonzalez-Estrella
- Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, MSC01 1070, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States; School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States
| | - Abdul Mehdi S Ali
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, MSC03 2040, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Juan Lezama-Pacheco
- Department of Earth Systems Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Carlyle Ducheneaux
- Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe, Eagle Butte, South Dakota 57625, United States
| | - José M Cerrato
- Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, MSC01 1070, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
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Hu L, Nie Z, Wang W, Zhang D, Long Y, Fang C. Arsenic transformation behavior mediated by arsenic functional genes in landfills. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 403:123687. [PMID: 32827863 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Landfill arsenic pollution is a complicated problem because of the sophisticated species and transformation of fractions involved. This study investigated arsenic transformation behavior from the viewpoint of arsenic functional genes based on analysis of 29 aged refuse samples collected from 11 sanitary landfills in 10 cities in Zhejiang Province, China. Arsenic species distribution varied significantly with landfill process. Landfill contains rich arsenic resistant microbes. arrA genes were the key factor responsible for arsenic transformation and migration in landfill. Although the abundance of aioA genes was the lowest among the four tested arsenic functional genes, it was the second important genes for arsenic distribution. Microbial metabolic activity was the main cause of arsenic transformation, and arsenate reduction by microbes was a key driver of arsenic mobilization in landfills. Moreover, arsenate was reduced to arsenite and further methylated to monomethylarsine (MMA) and dimethylarsine (DMA), decreasing the total arsenic content during the landfill process, but also inducing a new risk because of the arsenic effluent will be more easily as the state of arsenite, MMA, and DMA in the liquid phase. Overall, this study provides a picture of arsenic species transformation and insight into key roles involved in arsenic pollution during landfill processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lifang Hu
- College of Quality and Safety Engineering, Institution of Industrial Carbon Metrology, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Zhiyuan Nie
- College of Quality and Safety Engineering, Institution of Industrial Carbon Metrology, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Wenjie Wang
- College of Quality and Safety Engineering, Institution of Industrial Carbon Metrology, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Dongchen Zhang
- College of Quality and Safety Engineering, Institution of Industrial Carbon Metrology, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Yuyang Long
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310012, China.
| | - Chengran Fang
- Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-treatment of Waste Biomass of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
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Stachnik Ł, Korabiewski B, Raczyk J, Łopuch M, Wieczorek I. Arsenic pollution in Quaternary sediments and water near a former gold mine. Sci Rep 2020; 10:18458. [PMID: 33116153 PMCID: PMC7595152 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-74403-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Contamination of water and sediments with arsenic and heavy metals is a global issue affecting human health. Regions covered with Quaternary deposits have received little attention from the point of view of the flux of arsenic and heavy metals from sediments to surface water. This study aims to determine the flux of arsenic and other heavy metals from Quaternary sediments to surface waters in an area affected by the former Złoty Stok gold and arsenic mine. Contamination in surface waters and sediments was caused by arsenic, whereas concentrations of metals were usually within water quality standards. Arsenic contamination of surface water increased in the lower part of the basin covered by Quaternary sediments, and exceeded water quality standards by 2 orders of magnitude. Arsenic mass flux exceeded 8 kg/day near the confluence of the Trująca River with the Nysa Kłodzka, a main tributary of the Oder River. An increase in arsenic concentration in the lower part of the basin is related to mine tailings and preferential flow of groundwater through Quaternary sediments. In future, water resources scarcity may lead to an increase in arsenic contamination in surface and groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Stachnik
- Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Wrocław, Wojciecha Cybulskiego 34, Wrocław, 50-205, Poland.
| | - Bartosz Korabiewski
- Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Wrocław, Wojciecha Cybulskiego 34, Wrocław, 50-205, Poland
| | - Jerzy Raczyk
- Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Wrocław, Wojciecha Cybulskiego 34, Wrocław, 50-205, Poland
| | - Michał Łopuch
- Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Wrocław, Wojciecha Cybulskiego 34, Wrocław, 50-205, Poland
| | - Iwo Wieczorek
- Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Wrocław, Wojciecha Cybulskiego 34, Wrocław, 50-205, Poland
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Redox-stat bioreactors for elucidating mobilisation mechanisms of trace elements: an example of As-contaminated mining soils. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:7635-7641. [PMID: 29931602 PMCID: PMC6097752 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9165-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The environmental fate of major (e.g. C, N, S, Fe and Mn) and trace (e.g. As, Cr, Sb, Se and U) elements is governed by microbially catalysed reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions. Mesocosms are routinely used to elucidate trace metal fate on the basis of correlations between biogeochemical proxies such as dissolved element concentrations, trace element speciation and dissolved organic matter. However, several redox processes may proceed simultaneously in natural soils and sediments (particularly, reductive Mn and Fe dissolution and metal/metalloid reduction), having a contrasting effect on element mobility. Here, a novel redox-stat (Rcont) bioreactor allowed precise control of the redox potential (159 ± 11 mV, ~ 2 months), suppressing redox reactions thermodynamically favoured at lower redox potential (i.e. reductive mobilisation of Fe and As). For a historically contaminated mining soil, As release could be attributed to desorption of arsenite [As(III)] and Mn reductive dissolution. By contrast, the control bioreactor (Rnat, with naturally developing redox potential) showed almost double As release (337 vs. 181 μg g-1) due to reductive dissolution of Fe (1363 μg g-1 Fe2+ released; no Fe2+ detected in Rcont) and microbial arsenate [As(V)] reduction (189 μg g-1 released vs. 46 μg g-1 As(III) in Rcont). A redox-stat bioreactor thus represents a versatile tool to study processes underlying mobilisation and sequestration of other trace elements as well.
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Miniaturized Sample Preparation and Rapid Detection of Arsenite in Contaminated Soil Using a Smartphone. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18030777. [PMID: 29510538 PMCID: PMC5877113 DOI: 10.3390/s18030777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 02/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Conventional methods for analyzing heavy metal contamination in soil and water generally require laboratory equipped instruments, complex procedures, skilled personnel and a significant amount of time. With the advancement in computing and multitasking performances, smartphone-based sensors potentially allow the transition of the laboratory-based analytical processes to field applicable, simple methods. In the present work, we demonstrate the novel miniaturized setup for simultaneous sample preparation and smartphone-based optical sensing of arsenic As(III) in the contaminated soil. Colorimetric detection protocol utilizing aptamers, gold nanoparticles and NaCl have been optimized and tested on the PDMS-chip to obtain the high sensitivity with the limit of detection of 0.71 ppm (in the sample) and a correlation coefficient of 0.98. The performance of the device is further demonstrated through the comparative analysis of arsenic-spiked soil samples with standard laboratory method, and a good agreement with a correlation coefficient of 0.9917 and the average difference of 0.37 ppm, are experimentally achieved. With the android application on the device to run the experiment, the whole process from sample preparation to detection is completed within 3 hours without the necessity of skilled personnel. The approximate cost of setup is estimated around 1 USD, weight 55 g. Therefore, the presented method offers the simple, rapid, portable and cost-effective means for onsite sensing of arsenic in soil. Combined with the geometric information inside the smartphones, the system will allow the monitoring of the contamination status of soils in a nation-wide manner.
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Yan D, Li HJ, Cai HQ, Wang M, Wang CC, Yi HB, Min XB. Microscopic insight into precipitation and adsorption of As(V) species by Fe-based materials in aqueous phase. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 194:117-124. [PMID: 29197814 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2017] [Revised: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/25/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism of As(V) removal from the drinking water and industrial effluents by iron materials remains unclear at the molecular level. In this work, the association of Fe-based materials with As(V) species was explored using density functional theory and ab initio calculations. Solvent separated ion pair structures of [FeH2AsO4]2+aq species may be dominant in an acidic solution of FeAs complex. The association trend of H2AsO4- species by Fe3+aq is found to be quite weak in the aqueous solution, which may be attributed to the strong hydration of Fe3+aq and [FeH2AsO4]2+ species. However, the association of H2AsO4- species by colloidal clusters is quite strong, due to the weakened hydration of Fe(III) in colloidal structures. The hydrophobicity of Fe-based materials may be one of the key factors for their As(V) removal efficiency in an aqueous phase. When the number of OH- coordinated with Fe(III) increases, the association trend of As(V) by colloidal ferric hydroxides weakens accordingly. This study provides insights into understanding the coprecipitation and adsorption mechanisms of arsenate removal and revealing the high efficiency of arsenate removal by colloidal ferric hydroxides or iron salts under moderate pH conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui-Ji Li
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, People's Republic of China
| | - Hou-Qin Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, People's Republic of China
| | - Mei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, People's Republic of China
| | - Chun-Chang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, People's Republic of China
| | - Hai-Bo Yi
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xiao-Bo Min
- Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Control & Treatment of Heavy Metal Pollution, School of Metallurgy and Environment, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China.
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LeMonte JJ, Stuckey JW, Sanchez JZ, Tappero R, Rinklebe J, Sparks DL. Sea Level Rise Induced Arsenic Release from Historically Contaminated Coastal Soils. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:5913-5922. [PMID: 28472587 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b06152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Climate change-induced perturbations in the hydrologic regime are expected to impact biogeochemical processes, including contaminant mobility and cycling. Elevated levels of geogenic and anthropogenic arsenic are found along many coasts around the world, most notably in south and southeast Asia but also in the United States, particularly along the Mid-Atlantic coast. The mechanism by and the extent to which arsenic may be released in contaminated coastal soils due to sea level rise are unknown. Here we show a series of data from a coastal arsenic-contaminated soil exposed to sea and river waters in biogeochemical microcosm reactors across field-validated redox conditions. We find that reducing conditions lead to arsenic release from historically contaminated coastal soils through reductive dissolution of arsenic-bearing mineral oxides in both sea and river water inundations, with less arsenic release from seawater scenarios than river water due to inhibition of oxide dissolution. For the first time, we systematically display gradation of solid phase soil-arsenic speciation across defined redox windows from reducing to oxidizing conditions in natural waters by combining biogeochemical microcosm experiments and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Our results demonstrate the threat of sea level rise stands to impact arsenic release from contaminated coastal soils by changing redox conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J LeMonte
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Delaware Environmental Institute, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19711, United States
| | - Jason W Stuckey
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Delaware Environmental Institute, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19711, United States
| | - Joshua Z Sanchez
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Delaware Environmental Institute, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19711, United States
| | - Ryan Tappero
- Photon Sciences Division, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Building 743, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Jörg Rinklebe
- Institute of Foundation Engineering, Water- and Waste-Management, School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Wuppertal , Wuppertal 42285, Germany
| | - Donald L Sparks
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Delaware Environmental Institute, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19711, United States
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