1
|
Teoh R, Schumann U, Voigt C, Schripp T, Shapiro M, Engberg Z, Molloy J, Koudis G, Stettler MEJ. Targeted Use of Sustainable Aviation Fuel to Maximize Climate Benefits. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:17246-17255. [PMID: 36394538 PMCID: PMC9730838 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c05781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) can reduce aviation's CO2 and non-CO2 impacts. We quantify the change in contrail properties and climate forcing in the North Atlantic resulting from different blending ratios of SAF and demonstrate that intelligently allocating the limited SAF supply could multiply its overall climate benefit by factors of 9-15. A fleetwide adoption of 100% SAF increases contrail occurrence (+5%), but lower nonvolatile particle emissions (-52%) reduce the annual mean contrail net radiative forcing (-44%), adding to climate gains from reduced life cycle CO2 emissions. However, in the short term, SAF supply will be constrained. SAF blended at a 1% ratio and uniformly distributed to all transatlantic flights would reduce both the annual contrail energy forcing (EFcontrail) and the total energy forcing (EFtotal, contrails + change in CO2 life cycle emissions) by ∼0.6%. Instead, targeting the same quantity of SAF at a 50% blend ratio to ∼2% of flights responsible for the most highly warming contrails reduces EFcontrail and EFtotal by ∼10 and ∼6%, respectively. Acknowledging forecasting uncertainties, SAF blended at lower ratios (10%) and distributed to more flights (∼9%) still reduces EFcontrail (∼5%) and EFtotal (∼3%). Both strategies deploy SAF on flights with engine particle emissions exceeding 1012 m-1, at night-time, and in winter.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roger Teoh
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, LondonSW7 2AZ, U.K.
| | - Ulrich Schumann
- Institute
of Atmospheric Physics, Deutsches Zentrum
für Luft- und Raumfahrt, 82234Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
| | - Christiane Voigt
- Institute
of Atmospheric Physics, Deutsches Zentrum
für Luft- und Raumfahrt, 82234Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
- Institute
of Atmospheric Physics, University Mainz, 55099Mainz, Germany
| | - Tobias Schripp
- Institute
of Combustion Technology, Deutsches Zentrum
für Luft- und Raumfahrt, 70569Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Marc Shapiro
- Orca
Sciences, 4110 Carillon
Point, Kirkland, Washington98033, United States
| | - Zebediah Engberg
- Orca
Sciences, 4110 Carillon
Point, Kirkland, Washington98033, United States
| | - Jarlath Molloy
- NATS, 4000 Parkway, Whiteley Fareham, HampshirePO15 7FL, U.K.
| | - George Koudis
- NATS, 4000 Parkway, Whiteley Fareham, HampshirePO15 7FL, U.K.
| | - Marc E. J. Stettler
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, LondonSW7 2AZ, U.K.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ge F, Yu Z, Li Y, Zhu M, Zhang B, Zhang Q, Harrison RM, Chen L. Predicting aviation non-volatile particulate matter emissions at cruise via convolutional neural network. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 850:158089. [PMID: 35985597 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Aviation emissions are the only direct source of anthropogenic particulate pollution at high altitudes, which can form contrails and contrail-induced clouds, with consequent effects upon global radiative forcing. In this study, we develop a predictive model, called APMEP-CNN, for aviation non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) emissions using a convolutional neural network (CNN) technique. The model is established with data sets from the newly published aviation emission databank and measurement results from several field studies on the ground and during cruise operation. The model also takes the influence of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) on nvPM emissions into account by considering fuel properties. This study demonstrates that the APMEP-CNN can predict nvPM emission index in mass (EIm) and number (EIn) for a number of high-bypass turbofan engines. The accuracy of predicting EIm and EIn at ground level is significantly improved (R2 = 0.96 and 0.96) compared to the published models. We verify the suitability and the applicability of the APMEP-CNN model for estimating nvPM emissions at cruise and burning SAFs and blend fuels, and find that our predictions for EIm are within ±36.4 % of the measurements at cruise and within ±33.0 % of the measurements burning SAFs in average. In the worst case, the APMEP-CNN prediction is different by -69.2 % from the measurements at cruise for the JT3D-3B engine. Thus, the APMEP-CNN model can provide new data for establishing accurate emission inventories of global aviation and help assess the impact of aviation emissions on human health, environment and climate. SYNOPSIS: The results of this paper provide accurate predictions of nvPM emissions from in-use aircraft engines, which impact airport local air quality and global radiative forcing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fudong Ge
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Zhenhong Yu
- Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Yan Li
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Meiyin Zhu
- Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Roy M Harrison
- School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Longfei Chen
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhang C, Chen L, Ding S, Zhou X, Chen R, Zhang X, Yu Z, Wang J. Mitigation effects of alternative aviation fuels on non-volatile particulate matter emissions from aircraft gas turbine engines: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 820:153233. [PMID: 35066040 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Global air transportation has grown rapidly in the past decade until the recent coronavirus pandemic. Previous research has demonstrated that particulate matter (PM) emissions from aircraft gas turbine engines can impair human health and environment, and may play a significant role in global climate change via direct absorption of solar radiation and indirect effect by their interaction with clouds. Using alternative aviation fuels (AAFs) from different sources have become a promising means to reduce aviation PM emissions and ensure energy sustainability. This work presents a review of non-volatile PM (nvPM) emission characteristics of aircraft gas turbine engines burning conventional aviation fuel (CAF) and CAF/AAF blends from recent ground and cruise tests. Current engine emission regulations, as well as available aviation PM emission prediction models and inventories are also discussed. Available nvPM emission characteristics, including particle number, particle mass, and particle size distribution (PSD), are analyzed and compared among different studies. The synthesized results indicate that burning AAFs tends to generate smaller size nvPM and reduce up to 90% nvPM number as well as 60-85% nvPM mass. The reduction is the most significant at low engine power settings, but becomes marginal at high engine power settings. The utilization of AAF blends reduces nvPM emission yet increases water vapor emission, which may promote contrail and even widespread cirrus cloud formation. Therefore, more investigation is required to quantify the potential impact of burning AAF at cruise altitudes on cloud formation and climate change. An appropriate estimation method for the particle number emissions from aircraft gas turbine engines fueled by both CAF and CAF/AAF blends is also in need aiming to establish a global aviation nvPM emission inventory and improve relevant global climate models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cuiqi Zhang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China; Shenyuan Honors College of Beihang University, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Longfei Chen
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China.
| | - Shuiting Ding
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Xingfan Zhou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Occupational Safety and Health, Institute of Urban Safety and Environmental Science, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100054, China
| | - Rui Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Occupational Safety and Health, Institute of Urban Safety and Environmental Science, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100054, China
| | - Xiaole Zhang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Stefano-Franscini-Platz 3, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland; Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Ueberlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Zhenhong Yu
- Hudson River Research, LLC, 123 Town Square Place, Jersey City, NJ 07310, United States
| | - Jing Wang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Stefano-Franscini-Platz 3, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland; Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Ueberlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhou L, Ni Y, Feng H, Hu X. Assessment of predicted aircraft engine non-volatile particulate matter emissions at Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport using an integrated method. JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (1995) 2022; 72:370-382. [PMID: 35061582 DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2022.2029617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Assessing the aircraft engine nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) emissions during landing and take-off (LTO) cycles is significant for airport air quality management. However, presently few prior studies have examined aircraft engine nvPM emissions on a daily basis for optimizing flight operations at airports. Therefore, based on the latest first-order approximation method of engine nvPM emissions, we introduce the engine emission data and aircraft flight data to establish an integrated method for estimating daily aircraft engine nvPM emissions at airports. This method can be applied to obtain different engine nvPM mass and number emissions in each phase of the LTO cycle, and therefore the total nvPM mass and number emissions in different time periods can be estimated for the analysis of the sources and trends of daily aircraft engine nvPM emissions during LTO cycles at Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport. Results show that the highest aircraft engine nvPM mass and number emissions are generally predicted to occur in the climb and taxi/ground idle phase, respectively. The proportion of total engine nvPM mass and number emissions in each phase of the LTO cycle could also be estimated, specifically the take-off phase (21% & 6%), climb phase (52% &15%), approach phase (8% & 27%), and taxi/ground idle phase (19% & 52%). In addition, the trends of hourly engine nvPM mass and number emissions during LTO cycles within a day are similar, but the predicted highest total hourly engine nvPM mass and number emissions occur in different time periods (7:00-8:00 a.m. & 11:00-12:00 a.m.) at the airport, and the total hourly engine nvPM mass and number emissions at 6:00 a.m. to 17:00 p.m. are generally higher than those of the rest periods. These results are valuable for optimizing flight operations for mitigating the environmental impact of aircraft engine nvPM emissions.Implications: The integrated method for estimating engine nvPM mass and number emissions in the LTO cycle based on FOA4.0 method reported in this study is effective to assess the sources and trends of daily aircraft engine nvPM emissions during LTO cycles at airports, which is valuable for optimizing flight operations considering the environmental impact of aircraft engine nvPM emissions. When the relevant aircraft flights, engine parameters, and engine nvPM emission databases embedded in the integrated method for any airport are established, the method is feasible to assess the sources and trends of aircraft engine nvPM emissions during LTO cycles at any time period in the airport.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Limin Zhou
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Civil Aviation Department, Zhejiang Institute of Communications, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yushan Ni
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Huolei Feng
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaowen Hu
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Durdina L, Brem BT, Elser M, Schönenberger D, Siegerist F, Anet JG. Reduction of Nonvolatile Particulate Matter Emissions of a Commercial Turbofan Engine at the Ground Level from the Use of a Sustainable Aviation Fuel Blend. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:14576-14585. [PMID: 34662519 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) emissions from aircraft turbine engines deteriorate air quality and contribute to climate change. These emissions can be reduced using sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs). Here, we investigate the effects of a 32% SAF blend with fossil fuel on particle size distributions and nvPM emission indices of a widely used turbofan engine. The experiments were conducted in a test cell using a standardized sampling and measurement system. The geometric mean diameter (GMD) increased with thrust from ∼8 nm at idle to ∼40 nm at take-off, and the geometric standard deviation (GSD) was in the range of 1.74-2.01. The SAF blend reduced the GMD and GSD at each test point. The nvPM emission indices were reduced most markedly at idle by 70% in terms of nvPM mass and 60% in terms of nvPM number. The relative reduction of nvPM emissions decreased with the increasing thrust. The SAF blend reduced the nvPM emissions from the standardized landing and take-off cycle by 20% in terms of nvPM mass and 25% in terms of nvPM number. This work will help develop standardized models of fuel composition effects on nvPM emissions and evaluate the impacts of SAF on air quality and climate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Durdina
- Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Miriam Elser
- Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Julien G Anet
- Centre for Aviation, School of Engineering, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur CH-8401, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
The PARSIFAL project (Prandtlplane ARchitecture for the Sustainable Improvement of Future AirpLanes) aims to promote an innovative box-wing aircraft: the PrandtlPlane. Aircraft developed adopting this configuration are expected to achieve a payload capability higher than common single aisle analogues (e.g., Airbus 320 and Boeing 737 families), without any increase in the overall dimensions. We estimated the exhaust emissions from the PrandtlPlane and compared the corresponding impacts to those of a conventional reference aircraft, in terms of Global Warming Potential (GWP) and Global Temperature Potential (GTP), on two time-horizons and accounted for regional sensitivity. We considered carbon dioxide, carbonaceous and sulphate aerosols, nitrogen oxides and related ozone production, methane degradation and nitrate aerosols formation, contrails, and contrail cirrus. Overall, the introduction of the PrandtlPlane is expected to bring a considerable reduction of climate change in all the source regions considered, on both the time-horizons examined. Moreover, fuel consumption is expected to be reduced by 20%, as confirmed through high-fidelity Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations. Sensitivity of data, models, and metrics are detailed. Impact reduction and mitigation strategies are discussed, as well as the gaps to be addressed in order to develop a comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment on aircraft emissions.
Collapse
|
7
|
Kumal RR, Liu J, Gharpure A, Wal RLV, Kinsey JS, Giannelli B, Stevens J, Leggett C, Howard R, Forde M, Zelenyuk-Imre A, Suski K, Payne G, Manin J, Bachalo W, Frazee R, Onasch TB, Freedman A, Kittelson DB, Swanson JJ. Impact of Biofuel Blends on Black Carbon Emissions from a Gas Turbine Engine. ENERGY & FUELS : AN AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY JOURNAL 2020; 34:4958-4966. [PMID: 32327881 PMCID: PMC7180060 DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c00094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Presented here is an overview of non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) emissions, i.e. "soot" as assessed by TEM analyses of samples collected after the exhaust of a J-85 turbojet fueled with Jet-A as well as with blends of Jet-A and Camelina biofuel. A unifying explanation is provided to illustrate the combustion dynamics of biofuel and Jet-A fuel. The variation of primary particle size, aggregate size and nanostructure are analyzed as a function of biofuel blend across a range of engine thrust levels. The postulate is based on where fuels start along the soot formation pathway. Increasing biofuel content lowers aromatic concentration while placing increasing dependence upon fuel pyrolysis reactions to form the requisite concentration of aromatics for particle inception and growth. The required "kinetic" time for pyrolysis reactions to produce benzene and multi-ring PAHs allows increased fuel-air mixing by turbulence, diluting the fuel-rich soot-forming regions, effectively lowering their equivalence ratio. With a lower precursor concentration, particle inception is slowed, the resulting concentration of primary particles is lowered and smaller aggregates were measured. The lower equivalence ratio also results in smaller primary particles because of the lower concentration of growth species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raju R Kumal
- The John and Willie Leone Family Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering and the EMS Energy Institute, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Jiawei Liu
- The John and Willie Leone Family Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering and the EMS Energy Institute, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Akshay Gharpure
- The John and Willie Leone Family Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering and the EMS Energy Institute, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Randy L Vander Wal
- The John and Willie Leone Family Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering and the EMS Energy Institute, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - John S Kinsey
- Retired (formerly US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA)
| | - Bob Giannelli
- US Environmental Protection Agency, National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory (NVFEL), Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Jeffrey Stevens
- US Environmental Protection Agency, National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory (NVFEL), Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Cullen Leggett
- US Environmental Protection Agency, National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory (NVFEL), Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Robert Howard
- US Air Force, Arnold Engineering Development Complex (AEDC), Arnold AFB, TN 37389, USA
| | - Mary Forde
- US Air Force, Arnold Engineering Development Complex (AEDC), Arnold AFB, TN 37389, USA
| | - Alla Zelenyuk-Imre
- US Department of Energy, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - Kaitlyn Suski
- US Department of Energy, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - Greg Payne
- Artium Technologies Inc., Sunnyvale, CA 94085, USA
| | - Julien Manin
- Artium Technologies Inc., Sunnyvale, CA 94085, USA
| | | | - Richard Frazee
- Singularity Scientific Consulting Services, LLC, Whitmore Lake, MI 48189, USA
| | | | | | - David B Kittelson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Jacob J Swanson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Teoh R, Schumann U, Majumdar A, Stettler MEJ. Mitigating the Climate Forcing of Aircraft Contrails by Small-Scale Diversions and Technology Adoption. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:2941-2950. [PMID: 32048502 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The climate forcing of contrails and induced-cirrus cloudiness is thought to be comparable to the cumulative impacts of aviation CO2 emissions. This paper estimates the impact of aviation contrails on climate forcing for flight track data in Japanese airspace and propagates uncertainties arising from meteorology and aircraft black carbon (BC) particle number emissions. Uncertainties in the contrail age, coverage, optical properties, radiative forcing, and energy forcing (EF) from individual flights can be 2 orders of magnitude larger than the fleet-average values. Only 2.2% [2.0, 2.5%] of flights contribute to 80% of the contrail EF in this region. A small-scale strategy of selectively diverting 1.7% of the fleet could reduce the contrail EF by up to 59.3% [52.4, 65.6%], with only a 0.014% [0.010, 0.017%] increase in total fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. A low-risk strategy of diverting flights only if there is no fuel penalty, thereby avoiding additional long-lived CO2 emissions, would reduce contrail EF by 20.0% [17.4, 23.0%]. In the longer term, widespread use of new engine combustor technology, which reduces BC particle emissions, could achieve a 68.8% [45.2, 82.1%] reduction in the contrail EF. A combination of both interventions could reduce the contrail EF by 91.8% [88.6, 95.8%].
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roger Teoh
- Centre for Transport Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Ulrich Schumann
- Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, 82234 Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
| | - Arnab Majumdar
- Centre for Transport Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Marc E J Stettler
- Centre for Transport Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Durdina L, Brem BT, Schönenberger D, Siegerist F, Anet JG, Rindlisbacher T. Nonvolatile Particulate Matter Emissions of a Business Jet Measured at Ground Level and Estimated for Cruising Altitudes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:12865-12872. [PMID: 31578862 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b02513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Business aviation is a relatively small but steadily growing and little investigated emission source. Regarding emissions, aircraft turbine engines rated at and below 26.7 kN thrust are certified only for visible smoke and are excluded from the nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) standard. Here, we report nvPM emission characteristics of a widely used small turbofan engine determined in a ground test of a Dassault Falcon 900EX business jet. These are the first reported nvPM emissions of a small in-production turbofan engine determined with a standardized measurement system used for emissions certification of large turbofan engines. The ground-level measurements together with a detailed engine performance model were used to predict emissions at cruising altitudes. The measured nvPM emission characteristics strongly depended on engine thrust. The geometric mean diameter increased from 17 nm at idle to 45 nm at take-off. The nvPM emission indices peaked at low thrust levels (7 and 40% take-off thrust in terms of nvPM number and mass, respectively). A comparison with a commercial airliner shows that a business jet may produce higher nvPM emissions from flight missions as well as from landing and take-off operations. This study will aid the development of emission inventories for small aircraft turbine engines and future emission standards.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Durdina
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf 8600 , Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf 8600 , Switzerland
| | - David Schönenberger
- Laboratory for Air Pollution and Environmental Technology, Empa , Dübendorf 8600 , Switzerland
| | | | - Julien G Anet
- Centre for Aviation, School of Engineering , Zurich University of Applied Sciences , Winterthur 8401 , Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Zhang X, Chen X, Wang J. A number-based inventory of size-resolved black carbon particle emissions by global civil aviation. Nat Commun 2019; 10:534. [PMID: 30710090 PMCID: PMC6358618 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-08491-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
With the rapidly growing global air traffic, the impacts of the black carbon (BC) in the aviation exhaust on climate, environment and public health are likely rising. The particle number and size distribution are crucial metrics for toxicological analysis and aerosol-cloud interactions. Here, a size-resolved BC particle number emission inventory was developed for the global civil aviation. The BC particle number emission is approximately (10.9 ± 2.1) × 1025 per year with an average emission index of (6.06 ± 1.18) × 1014 per kg of burned fuel, which is about 1.3% of the total ground anthropogenic emissions, and 3.6% of the road transport emission. The global aviation emitted BC particles follow a lognormal distribution with a geometric mean diameter (GMD) of 31.99 ± 0.8 nm and a geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 1.85 ± 0.016. The variabilities of GMDs and GSDs for all flights are about 4.8 and 0.08 nm, respectively. The inventory provides new data for assessing the aviation impacts. Size-resolved Black Carbon (BC) particle number emission inventory is not available for global civil aviation. Here the authors converted BC mass emission inventory into number emission inventory and found that aviation BC number emission contributes to 1.3% of total ground anthropogenic emissions and 3.6% on global average.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaole Zhang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland.,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Xi Chen
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jing Wang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland. .,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Durdina L, Brem BT, Setyan A, Siegerist F, Rindlisbacher T, Wang J. Assessment of Particle Pollution from Jetliners: from Smoke Visibility to Nanoparticle Counting. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:3534-3541. [PMID: 28230356 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Aviation is a substantial and a fast growing emissions source. Besides greenhouse gases, aircraft engines emit black carbon (BC), a climate forcer and air pollutant. Aviation BC emissions have been regulated and estimated through exhaust smoke visibility (smoke number). Their impacts are poorly understood because emission inventories lack representative data. Here, we measured BC mass and number-based emissions of the most popular airliner's engines according to a new emission standard. We used a calibrated engine performance model to determine the emissions on the ground, at cruise altitude, and over entire flight missions. Compared to previous estimates, we found up to a factor of 4 less BC mass emitted from the standardized landing and takeoff cycle and up to a factor of 40 less during taxiing. However, the taxi phase accounted for up to 30% of the total BC number emissions. Depending on the fuel composition and flight distance, the mass and number-based emission indices (/kg fuel burned) were 6.2-14.7 mg and 2.8 × 1014 - 8.7 × 1014, respectively. The BC mass emissions per passenger-km were similar to gasoline vehicles, but the number-based emissions were relatively higher, comparable to old diesel vehicles. This study provides representative data for models and will lead to more accurate assessments of environmental impacts of aviation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Durdina
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich , Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich , Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Ari Setyan
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich , Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Jing Wang
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich , Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|