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Barakat A, Al Ghazal M, Fono Tamo RS, Phadatare A, Unser J, Hagan J, Vaidya U. Development of a Cure Model for Unsaturated Polyester Resin Systems Based on Processing Conditions. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:2391. [PMID: 39274024 PMCID: PMC11397111 DOI: 10.3390/polym16172391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2024] [Revised: 08/19/2024] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 09/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) systems are extensively used in composite materials for applications in the transportation, marine, and infrastructure sectors. There are continually evolving formulations of UPRs that need to be evaluated and optimized for processing. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) provides valuable insight into the non-isothermal and isothermal behavior of UPRs within a prescribed temperature range. In the present work, non-isothermal DSC tests were carried out between temperatures of 0.0 °C and 250 °C, through different heating and cooling ramp rates. The isothermal DSC tests were carried out between 0.0 and 170 °C. The instantaneous rate of cure of the tested temperatures were measured. The application of an autocatalytic model in a calculator was used to simulate curing behaviors under different processing conditions. As the temperature increased from 10 °C up to 170 °C, the rate of cure reduced, and the heat of reaction increased. The simulated cure behavior from the DSC data showed that the degree of cure (α) maximum value of 71.25% was achieved at the highest heating temperature of 85 °C. For the low heating temperature, i.e., 5 °C, the maximum degree of cure (α) did not exceed 12% because there was not enough heat to activate the catalyst to crosslink further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdallah Barakat
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Marc Al Ghazal
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Romeo Sephyrin Fono Tamo
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Akash Phadatare
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - John Unser
- Composite Applications Group (CAG), 3137 Waterfront Dr, Chattanooga, TN 37419, USA
| | - Joshua Hagan
- Research and Development Department, Wabash National Corporation, 3550 Veterans Memorial Pkwy S, Lafayette, IN 47909, USA
| | - Uday Vaidya
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
- Manufacturing Sciences Division (MSD), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), 2350 Cherahala Blvd, Knoxville, TN 37932, USA
- The Institute for Advanced Composites Manufacturing Innovation, 2370 Cherahala Blvd, Knoxville, TN 37932, USA
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Chimenti RV, Lehman-Chong AM, Sepcic AM, Engelhardt JD, Carriere JT, Bensley KA, Markashevsky A, Tu J, Stanzione JF, Lofland SE. Method for determining resin cure kinetics with low-frequency Raman spectroscopy. Analyst 2023; 148:5698-5706. [PMID: 37823883 DOI: 10.1039/d3an01099f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Characterizing resin extent of cure kinetics is critical to understanding the structure-property-processing relationships of polymers. The disorder band present in the low-frequency region of the Raman spectrum is directly related to conformational entropy and the modulus of amorphous materials, both of which change as the resin polymerizes. Normalizing the disorder band to its shoulder (∼85 cm-1) provides structural conversion kinetics, which we can directly correlate to chemical conversion kinetics for methacrylate and epoxy-amine based resin systems. In addition to fitting both the structural and chemical conversion data to a phenomenological kinetic rate equation, we also demonstrate a relationship between the chemical and structural kinetics which appears to relate to the softness of the material. Lastly, we use the method to investigate a methacrylate/epoxy interpenetrating polymer network resin system. We find that the structural and chemical conversions occur simultaneously during the formation of the primary (methacrylate) network, but there is a lag between the two during the formation of the secondary (epoxy-amine) network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert V Chimenti
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA.
- Advanced Materials & Manufacturing Institute (AMMI), Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
| | - Alexandra M Lehman-Chong
- Advanced Materials & Manufacturing Institute (AMMI), Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
| | - Alyssa M Sepcic
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
| | - Jamison D Engelhardt
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA.
- Advanced Materials & Manufacturing Institute (AMMI), Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
| | - James T Carriere
- Coherent Inc., 850 East Duarte Road, Monrovia, California 91016, USA
| | - Kayla A Bensley
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA.
| | - Adam Markashevsky
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
| | - Jianwei Tu
- Advanced Materials & Manufacturing Institute (AMMI), Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
| | - Joseph F Stanzione
- Advanced Materials & Manufacturing Institute (AMMI), Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
| | - Samuel E Lofland
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA.
- Advanced Materials & Manufacturing Institute (AMMI), Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Rd., Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA
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Lekshmi NM, Kumar SS, Ashraf PM, Xavier KAM, Prathish KP, Ajay SV, Edwin L, Turner A. Abandonment of fibreglass reinforced plastic fishing boats in Kerala, India, and chemical emissions arising from their burning. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:1413. [PMID: 37924359 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-12033-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Abstract
Little information exists on the fate and impacts of boats constructed of fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP) once they reach their end-of-life. In this study, the number of abandoned fishing boats constructed of FRP or constructed of plywood-wood and sheathed by FRP has been determined along the coast of Kerala, India, and chemical emissions have been estimated when boats are burned as a means of disposal. A total of 292 abandoned boats were observed across eight coastal transects constructed around selected landing centres, with abandonment ranging from 13 to 48 per km (average = 29 km-1). This results in the generation of 1420 kg of FRP debris (glass mat and epoxy resin) per km of coastline. A controlled combustion experiment, simulating open burning, revealed that 63% of original boat mass is emitted to the atmosphere, with the remainder forming a burnt residue. Total concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans emitted and remaining were found to be 2.6 ng Nm-3 and 249.6 μg kg-1, respectively, with respective calculated toxicity equivalence (TEQ) levels of 437.6 pg TEQ Nm-3 in air emissions and 26.6 μg TEQ kg-1 in the residue. These figures are equivalent to the total emission from FRP boat burning of about 17,000 μg TEQ t-1. Burning also generates significant quantities of potentially toxic metals, with resulting concentrations of Co, Cr and Cu close to or exceeding soil guideline values. The study calls for a greater awareness of the impacts arising from boat abandonment and burning amongst fishermen, and guidelines or regulatory protocols regarding safe and sustainable boat disposal or recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Manju Lekshmi
- ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, Kerala, - 682029, India.
| | - Sreejith S Kumar
- ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, Kerala, - 682029, India
| | - P Muhamed Ashraf
- ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, Kerala, - 682029, India
| | - K A Martin Xavier
- ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, Kerala, - 682029, India
| | - K P Prathish
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR - NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, - 695019, India
| | - S V Ajay
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR - NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, - 695019, India
| | - Leela Edwin
- ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, Kerala, - 682029, India
| | - Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
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Study on Microwave Curing of Unsaturated Polyester Resin and Its Composites Containing Calcium Carbonate. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14132598. [PMID: 35808644 PMCID: PMC9269521 DOI: 10.3390/polym14132598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Microwave curing technology has been widely used in resin and its composite materials. In order to study its effect for curing unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) composites containing calcium carbonate (CaCO3) filler, this paper first investigated the influence of microwave power and microwave irradiation time on the curing characteristics of UPR. Then, CaCO3 particles were added to the UPR to investigate the microwave curing effect of the UPR composites containing the CaCO3. The results showed that microwave irradiation could heat the UPR sample evenly, and rapidly cause the chain growth reaction, thus greatly shortening the curing time. The curing degree and products of the samples after microwave curing were consistent with that of the thermal curing. The addition of CaCO3 particles could increase the heating rate of the UPR composites, which would accelerate the curing rate of the UPR. However, higher microwave power could lead to pore defects inside the UPR composites with higher CaCO3 content, resulting in a lower strength. Thus, the compactness of the samples should be improved by reducing the microwave power and prolonging the microwave treatment time.
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