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Yang Y, Xie F, Chen J, Qiu S, Qiang N, Lu M, Peng Z, Yang J, Liu G. Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO 2 to CO by Molecular Cobalt-Polypyridine Diamine Complexes. Molecules 2024; 29:1694. [PMID: 38675514 PMCID: PMC11051790 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29081694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cobalt complexes have previously been reported to exhibit high faradaic efficiency in reducing CO2 to CO. Herein, we synthesized capsule-like cobalt-polypyridine diamine complexes [Co(L1)](BF4)2 (1) and [Co(L2) (CH3CN)](BF4)2 (2) as catalysts for the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2. Under catalytic conditions, complexes 1 and 2 demonstrated the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO in the presence or absence of CH3OH as a proton source. Experimental and computational studies revealed that complexes 1 and 2 undergo two consecutive reversible one-electron reductions on the cobalt core, followed by the addition of CO2 to form a metallocarboxylate intermediate [CoII(L)-CO22-]0. This crucial reaction intermediate, which governs the catalytic cycle, was successfully detected using high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). In situ Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR) analysis showed that methanol can enhance the rate of carbon-oxygen bond cleavage of the metallocarboxylate intermediate. DFT studies on [CoII(L)-CO22-]0 have suggested that the doubly reduced species attacks CO2 on the C atom through the dz2 orbital, while the interaction with CO2 is further stabilized by the π interaction between the metal dxz or dxz orbital with p orbitals on the O atoms. Further reductions generate a metal carbonyl intermediate [CoI(L)-CO]+, which ultimately releases CO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Yang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Huizhou University, Huizhou 516001, China; (F.X.); (J.C.); (S.Q.); (N.Q.); (M.L.); (Z.P.); (G.L.)
| | - Fang Xie
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Huizhou University, Huizhou 516001, China; (F.X.); (J.C.); (S.Q.); (N.Q.); (M.L.); (Z.P.); (G.L.)
| | - Jiahui Chen
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Huizhou University, Huizhou 516001, China; (F.X.); (J.C.); (S.Q.); (N.Q.); (M.L.); (Z.P.); (G.L.)
| | - Si Qiu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Huizhou University, Huizhou 516001, China; (F.X.); (J.C.); (S.Q.); (N.Q.); (M.L.); (Z.P.); (G.L.)
| | - Na Qiang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Huizhou University, Huizhou 516001, China; (F.X.); (J.C.); (S.Q.); (N.Q.); (M.L.); (Z.P.); (G.L.)
| | - Ming Lu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Huizhou University, Huizhou 516001, China; (F.X.); (J.C.); (S.Q.); (N.Q.); (M.L.); (Z.P.); (G.L.)
| | - Zhongli Peng
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Huizhou University, Huizhou 516001, China; (F.X.); (J.C.); (S.Q.); (N.Q.); (M.L.); (Z.P.); (G.L.)
| | - Jing Yang
- College of Health Science and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China
| | - Guocong Liu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Huizhou University, Huizhou 516001, China; (F.X.); (J.C.); (S.Q.); (N.Q.); (M.L.); (Z.P.); (G.L.)
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Sun H, Liu X, Li Y, Zhang F, Huang X, Sun C, Huang F. Mechanistic insights of electrocatalytic CO 2 reduction by Mn complexes: synergistic effects of the ligands. Dalton Trans 2024; 53:1663-1672. [PMID: 38168800 DOI: 10.1039/d3dt03453d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The electrocatalytic mechanisms of CO2 reduction catalyzed by pyridine-oxazoline (pyrox)-based Mn catalysts were investigated by DFT calculations. In-depth comparative analyses of pyrox-based and bipyridine-based Mn complexes were carried out. C-OH cleavage is the rate-determining step for both the protonation-first path and the reduction-first path. The free energy of CO2 activation (ΔG1) and the electrons donated by CO ligands in this step are effective descriptors in regulating the C-OH cleavage barrier. The reduction of carboxylate complex 6 (E6) is the potential-determining step for the reduction-first path. Meanwhile, for the protonation-first path, the initial generation (E2) or the regeneration (E8) of active catalyst might be potential-determining. Hirshfeld charge and orbital contribution analysis indicate that E6 is definitely based on the heterocyclic ligand and E2 is related to both the heterocyclic ligand and three CO ligands. Therefore, replacement of the CO ligand by a stronger electron donating ligand can effectively boost the catalytic activity of CO2 reduction without increasing the overpotential in the reduction-first path. This hypothesis is supported by the mechanism calculations of the Mn complex in which the axial CO ligand is replaced by a pyridine or PMe3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Sun
- Department of Assets and Laboratory Management, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China.
| | - Xueqing Liu
- Department of Assets and Laboratory Management, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China.
| | - Yafeng Li
- Department of Assets and Laboratory Management, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China.
| | - Fang Zhang
- Department of Assets and Laboratory Management, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China.
| | - Xiuxiu Huang
- Department of Assets and Laboratory Management, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China.
| | - Chuanzhi Sun
- Department of Assets and Laboratory Management, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China.
| | - Fang Huang
- Department of Assets and Laboratory Management, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China.
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Droghetti F, Amati A, Ruggi A, Natali M. Bioinspired motifs in proton and CO 2 reduction with 3d-metal polypyridine complexes. Chem Commun (Camb) 2024; 60:658-673. [PMID: 38117176 DOI: 10.1039/d3cc05156k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis of active and efficient catalysts for solar fuel generation is nowadays of high relevance for the scientific community, but at the same time poses great challenges. Critical requirements are mainly associated with the kinetic barriers due to the multi-proton and multi-electron nature of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and the CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) as well as to selectivity issues. In this regard, natural enzymes can be a source of inspiration for the design of effective and selective catalysts to target such fundamental reactions. In this Feature Article we review some recent works on molecular catalysts for both the HER and the CO2RR performed in our labs and other research teams which mainly address (i) the role of redox non-innocent ligands, to lower the overpotential for catalysis and control the selectivity, and (ii) the role of internal relays, to assist formation of catalytic intermediates via intramolecular routes. The selected exemplars have been chosen to emphasize that, although the molecular structures and the synthetic motifs are different from those of the active sites of natural enzymes, many affinities in terms of catalytic mechanism and functionality are instead present, which account for the observed remarkable performances under operative conditions. The data discussed herein thus demonstrate the great potential and the privileged role of molecular catalysts towards the design and construction of hybrid photochemical systems for solar energy conversion into fuels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Droghetti
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Sciences (DOCPAS), University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy.
| | - Agnese Amati
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Sciences (DOCPAS), University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy.
| | - Albert Ruggi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Fribourg, Chemin de Musée 9, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - Mirco Natali
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Sciences (DOCPAS), University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy.
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Narouz MR, De La Torre P, An L, Chang CJ. Multifunctional Charge and Hydrogen-Bond Effects of Second-Sphere Imidazolium Pendants Promote Capture and Electrochemical Reduction of CO 2 in Water Catalyzed by Iron Porphyrins. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202207666. [PMID: 35878059 PMCID: PMC9452489 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202207666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Microenvironments tailored by multifunctional secondary coordination sphere groups can enhance catalytic performance at primary metal active sites in natural systems. Here, we capture this biological concept in synthetic systems by developing a family of iron porphyrins decorated with imidazolium (im) pendants for the electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2 RR), which promotes multiple synergistic effects to enhance CO2 RR and enables the disentangling of second-sphere contributions that stem from each type of interaction. Fe-ortho-im(H), which poises imidazolium units featuring both positive charge and hydrogen-bond capabilities proximal to the active iron center, increases CO2 binding affinity by 25-fold and CO2 RR activity by 2000-fold relative to the parent Fe tetraphenylporphyrin (Fe-TPP). Comparison with monofunctional analogs reveals that through-space charge effects have a greater impact on catalytic CO2 RR performance compared to hydrogen bonding in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina R Narouz
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1460, USA
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720-1460, USA
| | - Patricia De La Torre
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1460, USA
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720-1460, USA
| | - Lun An
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1460, USA
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720-1460, USA
| | - Christopher J Chang
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1460, USA
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720-1460, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1460, USA
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Narouz MR, De La Torre P, An L, Chang CJ. Multifunctional Charge and Hydrogen‐Bond Effects of Second‐Sphere Imidazolium Pendants Promote Capture and Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 in Water Catalyzed by Iron Porphyrins. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202207666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mina R. Narouz
- UC Berkeley: University of California Berkeley Chemistry UNITED STATES
| | | | - Lun An
- UC Berkeley: University of California Berkeley Chemistry UNITED STATES
| | - Christopher J. Chang
- University of California Department of Chemistry 532A Latimer Hall 94720-1460 Berkeley UNITED STATES
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Derrick JS, Loipersberger M, Nistanaki SK, Rothweiler AV, Head-Gordon M, Nichols EM, Chang CJ. Templating Bicarbonate in the Second Coordination Sphere Enhances Electrochemical CO 2 Reduction Catalyzed by Iron Porphyrins. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:11656-11663. [PMID: 35749266 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c02972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Bicarbonate-based electrolytes are ubiquitous in aqueous electrochemical CO2 reduction, particularly in heterogenous catalysis, where they demonstrate improved catalytic performance relative to other buffers. In contrast, the presence of bicarbonate in organic electrolytes and its roles in homogeneous electrocatalysis remain underexplored. Here, we investigate the influence of bicarbonate on iron porphyrin-catalyzed electrochemical CO2 reduction. We show that bicarbonate is a viable proton donor in organic electrolyte (pKa = 20.8 in dimethyl sulfoxide) and that urea pendants in the second coordination sphere can be used to template bicarbonate in the vicinity of a molecular iron porphyrin catalyst. The templated binding of bicarbonate increases its acidity, resulting in a 1500-fold enhancement in catalytic rates relative to unmodified parent iron porphyrin. This work emphasizes the importance of bicarbonate speciation in wet organic electrolytes and establishes second-sphere bicarbonate templating as a design strategy to harness this adventitious acid and enhance CO2 reduction catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey S Derrick
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States.,Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Matthias Loipersberger
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Sepand K Nistanaki
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Aila V Rothweiler
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Martin Head-Gordon
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States.,Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Eva M Nichols
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Christopher J Chang
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States.,Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States.,Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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Hellman AN, Intrator JA, Choate J, Velazquez DA, Marinescu SC. Primary- and secondary-sphere effects of amine substituent position on rhenium bipyridine electrocatalysts for CO2 reduction. Polyhedron 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.poly.2022.115933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Liu JJ, Chapovetsky A, Haiges R, Marinescu SC. Effects of Protonation State on Electrocatalytic CO 2 Reduction by a Cobalt Aminopyridine Macrocyclic Complex. Inorg Chem 2021; 60:17517-17528. [PMID: 34761920 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c01977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A critical component in the reduction of CO2 to CO and H2O is the delivery of 2 equiv of protons and electrons to the CO2 molecule. The timing and sequencing of these proton and electron transfer steps are essential factors in directing the activity and selectivity for catalytic CO2 reduction. In previous studies, we have reported a series of macrocyclic aminopyridine cobalt complexes capable of reducing CO2 to CO with high faradaic efficiencies. Kinetic investigations reveal a relationship between the observed rate constant (kobs) and the number of pendant amine hydrogen bond donors minus one, suggesting the presence of a deprotonated active catalytic state. Herein, we investigate the feasibility of these proposed deprotonated complexes toward CO2 reduction. Two deprotonated derivatives, Co(L4-) and Co(L2-), of the tetraamino macrocycle Co(L) were independently synthesized and structurally characterized revealing extensive delocalization of the negative charge upon deprotonation. 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and ultraviolet-visible titration studies confirm that under catalytic conditions, the active form of the catalyst gradually becomes deprotonated, supporting thus the ndonor - 1 relationship with kobs. Electrochemical studies of Co(L4-) reveal that this deprotonated analogue is competent for electrocatalysis upon addition of an exogenous weak acid source, such as 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol, resulting in faradaic efficiencies for CO2-to-CO conversion identical to those observed with the fully protonated derivative (>98%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Alon Chapovetsky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Ralf Haiges
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Smaranda C Marinescu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
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Avasare VD. Ascendancy of Nitrogen Heterocycles in the Computationally Designed Mn(I)PNN Pincer Catalysts on the Hydrogenation of Carbon Dioxide to Methanol. Inorg Chem 2021; 61:1851-1868. [PMID: 34714058 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c02689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The development of sustainable catalysts to get methanol from CO2 under milder conditions and without any additives is still considered an arduous task. In many instances, transition-metal-catalyzed carbon dioxide to formic acid formation is more facile than methanol formation. This article provides comprehensive density functional theoretic investigations of six new Mn(I)PNN complexes, which are designed to perform CO2 to methanol conversion under milder reaction conditions. All these six catalysts have similar structural features except at terminal nitrogen, -N (1), where adenine-inspired nitrogen heterocycles containing pyridine and pyrimidine moieties are attached to instill an electron withdrawing effect on the central metal and thus to facilitate dihydrogen polarization during the catalyst regeneration. All these computationally modeled Mn(I)PNN complexes demonstrate the promising catalytic activity to get methanol through cascade catalytic cycles at 298.15 K. The metal-ligand cooperative (MLC) as well as noncooperative (NC) pathways are investigated for each catalytic cycle. The NC pathway is the preferred pathway for formic acid and formaldehyde formation, whereas methanol formation proceeds through only the MLC pathway. Different nitrogen heterocycles attached to the -N (1) terminal manifested a considerable amount of impact on the Gibbs free energies, overall activation energies, and computed turnover frequencies (TOFs). Among all the catalysts, SPCAT02 provides excellent TOFs for HCO2H (500 151 h-1), HCHO (11 912 h-1), and CH3OH (2 372 400 h-1) formation at 50 °C. SPCAT04 is found to be a better catalyst for the selective formation of formic acid formation at room temperature than the rest of the catalysts. The computed TOF results are found reliable upon comparison with experimentally established catalysts. To establish the structure-activity relationship, the activation strain model and Fukui function calculations are performed on all the catalysts. Both these studies provide complementary results. The present study revealed a very important finding that a more electrophilic metal center could facilitate the CO2 hydrogenation reaction robustly. All computationally designed catalysts could be cheaper and better alternatives to convert CO2 to methanol under mild reaction conditions in an aqueous medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidya D Avasare
- Department of Chemistry, Sir Parashurambhau College, Tilak Road, Pune, Maharashtra 411030, India
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Amanullah S, Saha P, Dey A. Activating the Fe(I) State of Iron Porphyrinoid with Second-Sphere Proton Transfer Residues for Selective Reduction of CO 2 to HCOOH via Fe(III/II)-COOH Intermediate(s). J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:13579-13592. [PMID: 34410125 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c04392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The ability to tune the selectivity of CO2 reduction by first-row transition metal-based complexes via the inclusion of second-sphere effects heralds exciting and sought-after possibilities. On the basis of the mechanistic understanding of CO2 reduction by iron porphyrins developed by trapping and characterizing the intermediates involved ( J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137, 11214), a porphyrinoid ligand is envisaged to switch the selectivity of the iron porphyrins by reducing CO2 from CO to HCOOH as well as lower the overpotential to the process. The results show that the iron porphyrinoid designed can catalyze the reduction of CO2 to HCOOH using water as the proton source with 97% yield with no detectable H2 or CO. The iron porphyrinoid can activate CO2 in its Fe(I) state resulting in very low overpotential for CO2 reduction in contrast to all reported iron porphyrins, which can reduce CO2 in their Fe(0) state. Intermediates involved in CO2 reduction, Fe(III)-COOH and a Fe(II)-COOH, are identified with in situ FTIR-SEC and subsequently chemically generated and characterized using FTIR, resonance Raman, and Mössbauer spectroscopy. The mechanism of the reaction helps elucidate a key role played by a closely placed proton transfer residue in aiding CO2 binding to Fe(I), stabilizing the intermediates, and determining the fate of a rate-determining Fe(II)-COOH intermediate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sk Amanullah
- School of Chemical Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, 2A & 2B Raja SC Mullick Road, Kolkata, West Bengal 700032, India
| | - Paramita Saha
- School of Chemical Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, 2A & 2B Raja SC Mullick Road, Kolkata, West Bengal 700032, India
| | - Abhishek Dey
- School of Chemical Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, 2A & 2B Raja SC Mullick Road, Kolkata, West Bengal 700032, India
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Fan G, Wasuwanich P, Furst AL. Biohybrid Systems for Improved Bioinspired, Energy-Relevant Catalysis. Chembiochem 2021; 22:2353-2367. [PMID: 33594779 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Biomimetic catalysts, ranging from small-molecule metal complexes to supramolecular assembles, possess many exciting properties that could address salient challenges in industrial-scale manufacturing. Inspired by natural enzymes, these biohybrid catalytic systems demonstrate superior characteristics, including high activity, enantioselectivity, and enhanced aqueous solubility, over their fully synthetic counterparts. However, instability and limitations in the prediction of structure-function relationships are major drawbacks that often prevent the application of biomimetic catalysts outside of the laboratory. Despite these obstacles, recent advances in synthetic enzyme models have improved our understanding of complicated biological enzymatic processes and enabled the production of catalysts with increased efficiency. This review outlines important developments and future prospects for the design and application of bioinspired and biohybrid systems at multiple length scales for important, biologically relevant, clean energy transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Fan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Pris Wasuwanich
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Ariel L Furst
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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