Minimal Active Space: NOSCF and NOSI in Multistate Density Functional Theory

Time propagation of electronic wavefunctions using nonorthogonal determinant expansions

The use of truncated configuration interaction in real-time time-dependent simulations of electron dynamics provides a balance of computational cost and accuracy, while avoiding some of the failures associated with real-time time-dependent density functional theory. However, low-order truncated configuration interaction also has limitations, such as overestimation of polarizability in configuration interaction singles, even when perturbative doubles are included. Increasing the size of the determinant expansion may not be computationally feasible, and so, in this work, we investigate the use of nonorthogonality in the determinant expansion to establish the extent to which higher-order substitutions can be recovered, providing an improved description of electron dynamics. Model systems are investigated to quantify the extent to which different methods accurately reproduce the (hyper)polarizability, including the high-harmonic generation spectrum of H2, water, and butadiene.

Leveling the Mountain Range of Excited-State Benchmarking through Multistate Density Functional Theory

The performance of multistate density functional theory (MSDFT) with nonorthogonal state interaction (NOSI) is assessed for 100 vertical excitation energies against the theoretical best estimates extracted to the full configuration interaction accuracy on the database developed by Loos et al. in 2018 (Loos2018). Two optimization techniques, namely, block-localized excitation and target state optimization, are examined along with two ways of estimating the transition density functional (TDF) for the correlation energy of the Hamiltonian matrix density functional. The results from the two optimization methods are similar. It was found that MSDFT-NOSI using the spin-multiplet degeneracy constraint for the TDF of spin-coupling interaction, along with the M06-2X functional, yields a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 0.22 eV, which performs noticeably better than time-dependent density functional theory (DFT) at an RMSE of 0.43 eV using the same functional and basis set on the Loos2018 database. In comparison with wave function theory, NOSI has smaller errors than CIS(D∞), LR-CC2, and ADC(3) all of which have an RMSE of 0.28 eV, but somewhat greater than STEOM-CCSD (RMSE of 0.14 eV) and LR-CCSD (RMSE of 0.11 eV) wave function methods. In comparison with Kohn-Sham (KS) DFT calculations, the multistate DFT approach has little double counting of correlation. Importantly, there is no noticeable difference in the performance of MSDFT-NOSI on the valence, Rydberg, singlet, triplet, and double-excitation states. Although the use of another hybrid functional PBE0 leads to a greater RMSE of 0.36 eV, the deviation is systematic with a linear regression slope of 0.994 against the results with M06-2X. The present benchmark reveals that density functional approximations developed for KS-DFT for the ground state with a noninteracting reference may be adopted in MSDFT calculations in which the state interaction is key.

Multistate Energy Decomposition Analysis of Molecular Excited States

A multistate energy decomposition analysis (MS-EDA) method is described to dissect the energy components in molecular complexes in excited states. In MS-EDA, the total binding energy of an excimer or an exciplex is partitioned into a ground-state term, called local interaction energy, and excited-state contributions that include exciton excitation energy, superexchange stabilization, and orbital and configuration-state delocalization. An important feature of MS-EDA is that key intermediate states associated with different energy terms can be variationally optimized, providing quantitative insights into widely used physical concepts such as exciton delocalization and superexchange charge-transfer effects in excited states. By introducing structure-weighted adiabatic excitation energy as the minimum photoexcitation energy needed to produce an excited-state complex, the binding energy of an exciplex and excimer can be defined. On the basis of the nature of intermolecular forces through MS-EDA analysis, it was found that molecular complexes in the excited states can be classified into three main categories, including (1) encounter excited-state complex, (2) charge-transfer exciplex, and (3) intimate excimer or exciplex. The illustrative examples in this Perspective highlight the interplay of local excitation polarization, exciton resonance, and superexchange effects in molecular excited states. It is hoped that MS-EDA can be a useful tool for understanding photochemical and photobiological processes.

Excimer Energies

A multistate energy decomposition analysis (MS-EDA) method is introduced for excimers using density functional theory. Although EDA has been widely applied to intermolecular interactions in the ground state, few methods are currently available for excited-state complexes. Here, the total energy of an excimer state is separated into exciton excitation energy ΔE_Ex(|Ψ_X·Ψ_Y⟩*), resulting from the state interaction between locally excited monomer states |Ψ_X^*·Ψ_Y⟩ and |Ψ_X·Ψ_Y^*⟩ , a superexchange stabilization energy ΔE_SE, originating from the mutual charge transfer between two monomers |Ψ_X⁺·Ψ_Y⟩ and |Ψ_X^-·Ψ_Y⁺⟩ , and an orbital-and-configuration delocalization term ΔE_OCD due to the expansion of configuration space and block-localized orbitals to the fully delocalized dimer system. Although there is no net charge transfer in symmetric excimer cases, the resonance of charge-transfer states is critical to stabilizing the excimer. The monomer localized excited and charge-transfer states are variationally optimized, forming a minimal active space for nonorthogonal state interaction (NOSI) calculations in multistate density functional theory to yield the intermediate states for energy analysis. The present MS-EDA method focuses on properties unique to excited states, providing insights into exciton coupling, superexchange and delocalization energies. MS-EDA is illustrated on the acetone and pentacene excimer systems; three configurations of the latter case are examined, including the optimized excimer, a stacked configuration of two pentacene molecules and the fishbone orientation. It is found that excited-state energy splitting is strongly dependent on the relative energies of the monomer excited states and the phase-matching of the monomer wave functions.

Target State Optimized Density Functional Theory for Electronic Excited and Diabatic States

A flexible self-consistent field method, called target state optimization (TSO), is presented for exploring electronic excited configurations and localized diabatic states. The key idea is to partition molecular orbitals into different subspaces according to the excitation or localization pattern for a target state. Because of the orbital-subspace constraint, orbitals belonging to different subspaces do not mix. Furthermore, the determinant wave function for such excited or diabatic configurations can be variationally optimized as a ground state procedure, unlike conventional ΔSCF methods, without the possibility of collapsing back to the ground state or other lower-energy configurations. The TSO method can be applied both in Hartree-Fock theory and in Kohn-Sham density functional theory (DFT). The density projection procedure and the working equations for implementing the TSO method are described along with several illustrative applications. For valence excited states of organic compounds, it was found that the computed excitation energies from TSO-DFT and time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) are of similar quality with average errors of 0.5 and 0.4 eV, respectively. For core excitation, doubly excited states and charge-transfer states, the performance of TSO-DFT is clearly superior to that from conventional TD-DFT calculations. It is shown that variationally optimized charge-localized diabatic states can be defined using TSO-DFT in energy decomposition analysis to gain both qualitative and quantitative insights on intermolecular interactions. Alternatively, the variational diabatic states may be used in molecular dynamics simulation of charge transfer processes. The TSO method can also be used to define basis states in multistate density functional theory for excited states through nonorthogonal state interaction calculations. The software implementing TSO-DFT can be accessed from the authors.

Nonorthogonal Active Space Decomposition of Wave Functions with Multiple Correlation Mechanisms

The nonorthogonal active space decomposition (NO-ASD) methodology is proposed for describing systems containing multiple correlation mechanisms. NO-ASD partitions the wave function by a correlation mechanism, such that the interactions between different correlation mechanisms are treated with an effective Hamiltonian approach, while interactions between correlated orbitals in the same correlation mechanism are treated explicitly. As a result, the determinant expansion scales polynomially with the number of correlation mechanisms rather than exponentially, which significantly reduces the factorial scaling associated with the size of the correlated orbital space. Despite the nonorthogonal framework of NO-ASD, the approach can take advantage of computational efficient matrix element evaluation when performing nonorthogonal coupling of orthogonal determinant expansions. In this work, we introduce and examine the NO-ASD approach in comparison to complete active space methods to establish how the NO-ASD approach reduces the problem dimensionality and the extent to which it affects the amount of correlation energy recovered. Calculations are performed on ozone, nickel-acetylene, and isomers of μ-oxo dicopper ammonia.

Fundamental Variable and Density Representation in Multistate DFT for Excited States

Complementary to the theorems of Hohenberg and Kohn for the ground state, Theophilou's subspace theory establishes a one-to-one relationship between the total eigenstate energy and density ρ_V(r) of the subspace spanned by the lowest N eigenstates. However, the individual eigenstate energies are not directly available from such a subspace density functional theory. Lu and Gao (J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2022, 13, 7762) recently proved that the Hamiltonian projected on to this subspace is a matrix functional H[D] of the multistate matrix density D(r) and that variational optimization of the trace of the Hamiltonian matrix functional yields exactly the individual eigenstates and densities. This study shows that the matrix density D(r) is the necessary fundamental variable in order to determine the exact energies and densities of the individual eigenstates. Furthermore, two ways of representing the matrix density are introduced, making use of nonorthogonal and orthogonal orbitals. In both representations, a multistate active space of auxiliary states can be constructed to exactly represent D(r) with which an explicit formulation of the Hamiltonian matrix functional H[D] is presented. Importantly, the use of a common set of orthonormal orbitals makes it possible to carry out multistate self-consistent-field optimization of the auxiliary states with singly and doubly excited configurations (MS-SDSCF).