Vertical Ionization Energies and Electron Affinities of Native and Damaged DNA Bases, Nucleotides, and Pairs from Density Functional Theory Calculations: Model Assessment and Implications for DNA Damage Recognition and Repair

Preparation of UV-cured cellulose nanocrystal-filled epoxidized natural rubber and its application in a triboelectric nanogenerator

Cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) is an abundant biopolymer possessing high strength and biodegradability. In the present work, the extraction of CNCs from Napier grass stems was carried out. The CNCs were subsequently modified by maleic anhydride, called M-CNC, before being incorporated into the epoxidized natural rubber (ENR). The compounds were later cured by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation under various conditions. The obtained optimum condition was then used to fabricate the biocomposites filled with various CNC and M-CNC loadings for triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) performance measurements. Output voltage and current increased continuously with increasing filler loading. Regardless of the filler type, an increase in filler loading enhanced TENG output. ENR/M-CNC exhibited a superior TENG output to ENR/CNC due to the greater electron transfer capability of the biocomposites, as proven by the reduction in the ionization potential (IP) value obtained from the quantum calculation. In this study, ENR/M-CNC5 exhibited the maximum output voltage (80.3 V), current (7.4 μA), and power density (1.32 W/m2) at a load resistance of 9 MΩ.

Redox-Based Defect Detection in Packed DNA: Insights from Hybrid Quantum Mechanical/Molecular Mechanics Molecular Dynamics Simulations

The impact of an 8-oxoguanine (8oxoG) defect on the redox properties of DNA within the nucleosome core particle (NCP) was investigated employing hybrid quantum mechanical/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) molecular dynamics simulations of native and 8oxoG-containing NCP systems with an explicit representation of a biologically relevant environment. Two distinct NCP positions with varying solvent accessibility were considered for 8oxoG insertion. In both cases, it is found that the presence of 8oxoG drastically decreases the redox free energy of oxidation by roughly 1 eV, which is very similar to what was recently reported for free native and 8oxoG-containing DNA. In contrast, the effect of 8oxoG on the reorganization free energy is even smaller for packed DNA (decrease of 0.13 and 0.01 eV for defect-free and defect-containing systems, respectively) compared to the one for free DNA (0.25 eV), consistent with the increased rigidity of the NCP as compared to free DNA. Furthermore, the presence of an 8oxoG defect does not yield any significant changes in the packed DNA structure. Such a conclusion favors the idea that in the case of chromatin, defect-induced changes in DNA redox chemistry can also be exploited to detect damaged bases via DNA-mediated hole transfer.

Intramolecular and intermolecular hole delocalization rules the reducer character of isolated nucleobases and homogeneous single-stranded DNA

The use of DNA strands as nanowires or electrochemical biosensors requires a deep understanding of charge transfer processes along the strand, as well as of the redox properties. These properties are computationally assessed in detail throughout this study. By applying molecular dynamics and hybrid QM/continuum and QM/QM/continuum schemes, the vertical ionization energies, adiabatic ionization energies, vertical attachment energies, one-electron oxidation potentials, and delocalization of the hole generated upon oxidation have been determined for nucleobases in their free form and as part of a pure single-stranded DNA. We show that the reducer ability of the isolated nucleobases is explained by the intramolecular delocalization of the positively charged hole, while the enhancement of the reducer character when going from aqueous solution to the strand correlates very well with the intermolecular hole delocalization. Our simulations suggest that the redox properties of DNA strands can be tuned by playing with the balance between intramolecular and intermolecular charge delocalization.

How Clustered DNA Damage Can Change the Electronic Properties of ds-DNA—Differences between GAG, GAOXOG, and OXOGAOXOG

Every 24 h, roughly 3 × 1017 incidences of DNA damage are generated in the human body as a result of intra- or extra-cellular factors. The structure of the formed lesions is identical to that formed during radio- or chemotherapy. Increases in the clustered DNA damage (CDL) level during anticancer treatment have been observed compared to those found in untreated normal tissues. 7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-2′-deoxyguanosine (OXOG) has been recognized as the most common lesion. In these studies, the influence of OXOG, as an isolated (oligo-OG) or clustered DNA lesion (oligo-OGOG), on charge transfer has been analyzed in comparison to native oligo-G. DNA lesion repair depends on the damage recognition step, probably via charge transfer. Here the electronic properties of short ds-oligonucleotides were calculated and analyzed at the M062x/6-31++G** level of theory in a non-equilibrated and equilibrated solvent state. The rate constant of hole and electron transfer according to Marcus’ theory was also discussed. These studies elucidated that OXOG constitutes the sink for migrated radical cations. However, in the case of oligo-OGOG containing a 5′-OXOGAXOXG-3′ sequence, the 3′-End OXOG becomes predisposed to electron-hole accumulation contrary to the undamaged GAG fragment. Moreover, it was found that the 5′-End OXOG present in an OXOGAOXOG fragment adopts a higher adiabatic ionization potential than the 2′-deoxyguanosine of an undamaged analog if both ds-oligos are present in a cationic form. Because increases in CDL formation have been observed during radio- or chemotherapy, understanding their role in the above processes can be crucial for the efficiency and safety of medical cancer treatment.

Molecular Rectifiers with a Very High Rectification Ratio Enabled by Oxidative Damage in Double-Stranded DNA

In this work, we report a novel strategy to construct highly efficient molecular diodes using oxidatively damaged DNA molecules. Being exposed to several endogenous and exogenous events, DNA suffers from constant oxidative damage, leading to the oxidation of guanine to 8-oxoguanine (8oxoG). Here, we study the charge migration properties of native and oxidatively damaged DNA using a multiscale multiconfigurational methodology comprising molecular dynamics, density functional theory, and kinetic Monte Carlo simulations. We perform a comprehensive study to understand the effect of different concentrations and locations of 8oxoG in a dsDNA sequence on its charge-transport properties and find tunable rectifier properties having potential applications in molecular electronics such as molecular switches and molecular rectifiers. We also discover the negative differential resistance properties of the fully oxidized Drew-Dickerson sequence. The presence of 8oxoG guanine leads to the trapping of charge, thus operating as a charge sink, which reveals how oxidized guanine saves the rest of the genome from further oxidative damage.

Damage Induced to DNA and Its Constituents by 0-3 eV UV Photoelectrons†

The complex physical and chemical interactions between DNA and 0-3 eV electrons released by UV photoionization can lead to the formation of various lesions such as base modifications and cleavage, crosslinks and single strand breaks. Furthermore, in the presence of platinum chemotherapeutic agents, these electrons can cause clustered lesions, including double strand breaks. We explain the mechanisms responsible for these damages via the production 0-3 eV electrons by UVC radiation, and by UV photons of any wavelengths, when they are produced by photoemission from nanoparticles lying within about 10 nm from DNA. We review experimental evidence showing that a single 0-3 eV electron can produce these damages. The foreseen benefits UV-irradiation of nanoparticles targeted to the cell nucleus are mentioned in the context of cancer therapy, as well as the potential hazards to human health when they are present in cells.

Attosecond charge migration following oxygen K-shell ionization in DNA bases and base pairs

Core ionization of DNA begins a cascade of events which could lead to cellular inactivation or death. The created core-hole following an impulse inner-shell ionization of molecules naturally decays in the auger timescale. We simulated charge migration (CM) phenomena following an impulsive core ionization of individual DNA bases at the oxygen K-edge which occurs before Auger decay of the oxygen. Our approach is based on real-time time dependent density functional theory (RT-TDDFT). It is shown that the pronounced hole fluctuation observed around bonds of the initial core-hole results in various valence orbital migrations. Also, the same photo-core-ionized dynamics is studied for the related base pairs. We investigate the role of base pairing and H-bonding interactions in the attosecond CM dynamics. In particular, the creation of a core-hole in the oxygen involved in H-bonding leads to an enhancement of charge migration relative to the respective single bases. Importantly, the hole oscillation of the adenine-thymine base pair upon creation of a core-hole at the oxygen, which does not contribute to the donor-acceptor interactions (not H-bonded), decreases compared to the single thymine base. Understanding the detailed dynamics of the localized core-hole initiating CM process would open the way for chemically controlling DNA damage/repair in the future.

Redox Properties of Native and Damaged DNA from Mixed Quantum Mechanical/Molecular Mechanics Molecular Dynamics Simulations

The redox properties of two large DNA fragments composed of 39 base pairs, differing only by an 8-oxoguanine (8oxoG) defect replacing a guanine (G), were investigated in physiological conditions using mixed quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) molecular dynamics simulations. The quantum region of the native fragment comprised 3 G-C base pairs, while one G was replaced by an 8oxoG in the defect fragment. The calculated values for the redox free energy are 6.55 ± 0.28 eV and 5.62 ± 0.30 eV for the native and the 8oxoG-containing fragment, respectively. The respective estimates for the reorganization free energy are 1.25 ± 0.18 eV and 1.00 ± 0.18 eV. Both reactions follow the Marcus theory for electron transfer. The large difference in redox potential between the two fragments shows that replacement of a G by an 8oxoG renders the DNA more easily oxidizable. This finding is in agreement with the suggestion that DNA fragments containing an 8oxoG defect can act as sinks of oxidative damage that protect the rest of the genome from assault. In addition, the difference in redox potential between the native and the defect DNA fragment indicates that a charge transfer-based mechanism for the recognition of DNA defects might be feasible, in line with recent suggestions based on experimental observations.

The Influence of Single, Tandem, and Clustered DNA Damage on the Electronic Properties of the Double Helix: A Theoretical Study

Oxidatively generated damage to DNA frequently appears in the human genome as the effect of aerobic metabolism or as the result of exposure to exogenous oxidizing agents, such as ionization radiation. In this paper, the electronic properties of single, tandem, and clustered DNA damage in comparison with native ds-DNA are discussed as a comparative analysis for the first time. A single lesion—8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine (G^oxo), a tandem lesion—(5′S) and (5′R) 5′,8-cyclo-2′-deoxyadenosine (cdA), and the presence of both of them in one helix turn as clustered DNA damage were chosen and taken into consideration. The lowest vertical and adiabatic potential (VIP ~ 5.9 and AIP ~ 5.5 eV, respectively) were found for G^oxo, independently of the discussed DNA lesion type and their distribution within the double helix. Moreover, the VIP and AIP were assigned for ds-trimers, ds- dimers and single base pairs isolated from parental ds-hexamers in their neutral and cationic forms. The above results were confirmed by the charge and spin density population, which revealed that G^oxo can be considered as a cation radical point of destination independently of the DNA damage type (single, tandem, or clustered). Additionally, the different influences of cdA on the charge transfer rate were found and discussed in the context of tandem and clustered lesions. Because oligonucleotide lesions are effectively produced as a result of ionization factors, the presented data in this article might be valuable in developing a new scheme of anticancer radiotherapy efficiency.

One-electron oxidation of ds(5'-GGG-3') and ds(5'-G(8OG)G-3') and the nature of hole distribution: a density functional theory (DFT) study

Of particular interest in radiation-induced charge transfer processes in DNA is the extent of hole localization immediately after ionization and subsequent relaxation. To address this, we considered double stranded oligomers containing guanine (G) and 8-oxoguanine (8OG), i.e., ds(5'-GGG-3') and ds(5'-G8OGG-3') in B-DNA conformation. Using DFT, we calculated a variety of properties, viz., vertical and adiabatic ionization potentials, spin density distributions in oxidized stacks, solvent and solute reorganization energies and one-electron oxidation potential (E0) in the aqueous phase. Calculations for the vertical state of the -GGG- cation radical showed that the spin was found mainly (67%) on the middle G. However, upon relaxation to the adiabatic -GGG- cation radical, the spin localized (96%) on the 5'-G, as observed in experiments. Hole localizations on the middle G and 3'-G were higher in energy by 0.5 kcal mol-1 and 0.4 kcal mol-1, respectively, than that of 5'-G. In the -G8OGG- cation radical, the spin localized only on the 8OG in both vertical and adiabatic states. The calculated vertical ionization potentials of -GGG- and -G8OGG- stacks were found to be lower than that of the vertical ionization potential of a single G in DNA. The calculated E0 values of -GGG- and -G8OGG- stacks are 1.15 and 0.90 V, respectively, which owing to stacking effects are substantially lower than the corresponding experimental E0 values of their monomers (1.49 and 1.18 V, respectively). SOMO to HOMO level switching is observed in these oxidized stacks. Consequently, our calculations predict that local double oxidations in DNA will form triplet diradical states, which are especially significant for high LET radiations.

Clustered DNA Damage: Electronic Properties and Their Influence on Charge Transfer. 7,8-Dihydro-8-Oxo-2'-Deoxyguaosine Versus 5',8-Cyclo-2'-Deoxyadenosines: A Theoretical Approach

Approximately 3 × 10¹⁷ DNA damage events take place per hour in the human body. Within clustered DNA lesions, they pose a serious problem for repair proteins, especially for iron–sulfur glycosylases (MutyH), which can recognize them by the electron-transfer process. It has been found that the presence of both 5′,8-cyclo-2′-deoxyadenosine (cdA) diastereomers in the ds-DNA structure, as part of a clustered lesion, can influence vertical radical cation distribution within the proximal part of the double helix, i.e., d[~oxoGcAoxoG~] (7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-2′-deoxyguaosine - ^oxodG). Here, the influence of cdA, “the simplest tandem lesion”, on the charge transfer through ds-DNA was taken into theoretical consideration at the M062x/6-31+G** level of theory in the aqueous phase. It was shown that the presence of (5′S)- or (5′R)-cdA leads to a slowdown in the hole transfer by one order of magnitude between the neighboring dG→^oxodG in comparison to “native” ds-DNA. Therefore, it can be concluded that such clustered lesions can lead to defective damage recognition with a subsequent slowing down of the DNA repair process, giving rise to an increase in mutations. As a result, the unrepaired, ^oxodG: dA base pair prior to genetic information replication can finally result in GC → TA or AT→CG transversion. This type of mutation is commonly observed in human cancer cells. Moreover, because local multiple damage sites (LMSD) are effectively produced as a result of ionization factors, the presented data in this article might be useful in developing a new scheme of radiotherapy treatment against the background of DNA repair efficiency.