Copper-mediated formally dehydrative biaryl coupling of azine N-oxides and oxazoles

Pyridine C(sp2)-H bond functionalization under transition-metal and rare earth metal catalysis

Pyridine is a crucial heterocyclic scaffold that is widely found in organic chemistry, medicines, natural products, and functional materials. In spite of the discovery of several methods for the synthesis of functionalized pyridines or their integration into an organic molecule, new methodologies for the direct functionalization of pyridine scaffolds have been developed during the past two decades. In addition, transition-metal-catalyzed C-H functionalization and rare earth metal-catalyzed reactions have flourished over the past two decades in the development of functionalized organic molecules of concern. In this review, we discuss recent achievements in the transition-metal and rare earth metal-catalyzed C-H bond functionalization of pyridine and look into the mechanisms involved.

Cu(II) carboxylate arene C─H functionalization: Tuning for nonradical pathways

We report carbon-hydrogen acetoxylation of nondirected arenes benzene and toluene, as well as related functionalization with pivalate and 2-ethylhexanoate ester groups, using simple copper(II) [Cu(II)] salts with over 80% yield. By changing the ratio of benzene and Cu(II) salts, 2.4% conversion of benzene can be reached. Combined experimental and computational studies results indicate that the arene carbon-hydrogen functionalization likely occurs by a nonradical Cu(II)-mediated organometallic pathway. The Cu(II) salts used in the reaction can be isolated, recycled, and reused with little change in reactivity. In addition, the Cu(II) salts can be regenerated in situ using oxygen and, after the removal of the generated water, the arene carbon-hydrogen acetoxylation and related esterification reactions can be continued, which leads to a process that enables recycling of Cu(II).

Recent advances on non-precious metal-catalyzed C-H functionalization of N-heteroarenes

N-Heteroarenes are widely used for numerous medicinal applications, lifesaving drugs and show utmost importance as intermediates in chemical synthesis. This feature article highlights the recent advances, from 2015 to August 2021, on sp² and sp³ C-H bond functionalization reactions of various N-heteroarenes catalyzed by non-precious transition metals (Mn, Co, Fe, Ni, etc.). The salient features of the report are: (i) the development of newer catalysis for Csp²-H activation of N-heteroarenes and categorized into alkylation, alkenylation, borylation, cyanation, and annulation reactions, (ii) recent advances on Csp³-H bond functionalization of N-heteroarenes considering newer approaches for alkylation as well as alkenylation processes, and (iii) synthetic applications and practical utility of the catalytic protocols utilized for late-stage drug development; (iv) scope for the development of newer catalytic protocols along with mechanistic studies and detail mechanistic findings of various important processes.

Azine-N-oxides as effective controlling groups for Rh-catalysed intermolecular alkyne hydroacylation

Heterocycle-derived aldehydes are challenging substrates in metal-catalysed hydroacylation chemistry. We show that by using azine N-oxide substituted aldehydes, good reactivity can be achieved, and that they are highly effective substrates for the intermolecular hydroacylation of alkynes. Employing a Rh(i)-catalyst, we achieve a mild and scalable aldehyde C-H activation, that permits the coupling with unactivated terminal alkynes, in good yields and with high regioselectivities (up to >20 : 1 l:b). Both substrates can tolerate a broad variety of functional groups. The reaction can also be applied to diazine aldehydes that contain a free N-lone pair. We demonstrate conversion of the hydroacylation products to the corresponding azine, through a one-pot hydroacylation/deoxygenation sequence. A one-pot hydroacylation/cyclisation, using N-Boc propargylamine, additionally leads to the synthesis of a bidentate pyrrolyl ligand.

Synthesis and Characterization of 1,10-Phenanthroline-mono-N-oxides

N-oxides of N-heteroaromatic compounds find widespread applications in various fields of chemistry. Although the strictly planar aromatic structure of 1,10-phenanthroline (phen) is expected to induce unique features of the corresponding N-oxides, so far the potential of these compounds has not been explored. In fact, appropriate procedure has not been reported for synthesizing these derivatives of phen. Now, we provide a straightforward method for the synthesis of a series of mono-N-oxides of 1,10-phenanthrolines. The parent compounds were oxidized by a green oxidant, peroxomonosulfate ion in acidic aqueous solution. The products were obtained in high quality and at good to excellent yields. A systematic study reveals a clear-cut correlation between the basicity of the compounds and the electronic effects of the substituents on the aromatic ring. The UV spectra of these compounds were predicted by DFT calculations at the TD-DFT/TPSSh/def2-TZVP level of theory.

The 2-Pyridyl Problem: Challenging Nucleophiles in Cross-Coupling Arylations

Azine-containing biaryls are ubiquitous scaffolds in many areas of chemistry, and efficient methods for their synthesis are continually desired. Pyridine rings are prominent amongst these motifs. Transition-metal-catalysed cross-coupling reactions have been widely used for their synthesis and functionalisation as they often provide a swift and tuneable route to related biaryl scaffolds. However, 2-pyridine organometallics are capricious coupling partners and 2-pyridyl boron reagents in particular are notorious for their instability and poor reactivity in Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions. The synthesis of pyridine-containing biaryls is therefore limited, and methods for the formation of unsymmetrical 2,2'-bis-pyridines are scarce. This Review focuses on the methods developed for the challenging coupling of 2-pyridine nucleophiles with (hetero)aryl electrophiles, and ranges from traditional cross-coupling processes to alternative nucleophilic reagents and novel main group approaches.

Deoxygenative C2-heteroarylation of quinoline N-oxides: facile access to α-triazolylquinolines

A metal- and additive-free, highly efficient, step-economical deoxygenative C2-heteroarylation of quinolines and isoquinolines was achieved from readily available N-oxides and N-sulfonyl-1,2,3-triazoles. A variety of α-triazolylquinoline derivatives were synthesized with good regioselectivity and in excellent yields under mild reaction conditions. Further, a gram-scale and one-pot synthesis illustrated the efficacy and simplicity of the developed protocol. The current transformation was also found to be compatible for the late-stage modification of natural products.

Enamides and dienamides in phosphoric acid-catalysed enantioselective cycloadditions for the synthesis of chiral amines

This feature article describes how enamides and dienamides can participate in chiral phosphoric acid catalyzed enantioselective cycloadditions to prepare a wide range of cyclic amines.

Palladium-Catalyzed Direct Arylation of Alkylpyridine via Activated N-Methylpyridinium Salts

An efficient Pd-catalyzed arylation of alkylpyridine based on the pyridinium activation strategy has been developed for synthesis of mixed aryl alkylpyridines. It was found that (1) the N-methyl group in the pyridinium salts acted as a transient activator and could be automatically departed after the reaction, (2) CuBr was an indispensable additive for achieving the C₆-selective arylation, (3) the α-branched alkyl chain on the alkylpyridine greatly increased the yield of the product. Deuterium labelling experiment revealed that in the case of the α-branched alkylpyridine, the presence of CuBr completely inhibited the H/D exchange at the benzylic position and thus enabled the selective arylation at the C₆ position. This protocol demonstrates a broad substrate scope, and with respect to both the aryl iodides and the α-branched alkylpyridine, the desired mixed aryl alkylpyridines were obtained in generally good to excellent yields.

Cu-Catalyzed carbamoylation versus amination of quinoline N-oxide with formamides

Carbamoylation and amination of quinoline with formamides was developed via copper-catalyzed C–C and C–N bond formations.

3d Transition Metals for C-H Activation

C-H activation has surfaced as an increasingly powerful tool for molecular sciences, with notable applications to material sciences, crop protection, drug discovery, and pharmaceutical industries, among others. Despite major advances, the vast majority of these C-H functionalizations required precious 4d or 5d transition metal catalysts. Given the cost-effective and sustainable nature of earth-abundant first row transition metals, the development of less toxic, inexpensive 3d metal catalysts for C-H activation has gained considerable recent momentum as a significantly more environmentally-benign and economically-attractive alternative. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview on first row transition metal catalysts for C-H activation until summer 2018.

Cyano-Sacrificial (Arylthio)arylamination of Quinoline and Isoquinoline N-Oxides Using N-(2-(Arylthio)aryl)cyanamides

A copper(I)-catalyzed regioselective arylthio-arylamination of quinoline and isoquinoline N-oxides has been achieved at the expense of a cyano (CN) group from N-(2-(arylthio)aryl)cyanamides. This reductive amination proceeds in one pot at 80 °C in the absence of any additives. This is a unique demonstration of aryl cyanamides serving as arylaminating agents on quinoline/isoquinoline N-oxides with concurrent autoreduction of N-oxide.

RhIII -Catalyzed Direct C8-Arylation of Quinoline N-Oxides using Diazonaphthalen-2(1H)-ones: A Practical Approach towards 8-aza BINOL

An efficient Rh^III -catalyzed redox-neutral method for the direct C8-arylation of quinoline N-oxides using diazonaphthalen-2(1H)-one as coupling partner has been demonstrated. The developed method is simple, scalable and straightforward with a wide range of substrate scope. The applicative potential was extended with a late-stage functionalization and straightforward synthesis of 8-azaBINOL derivative. A plausible reaction pathway was proposed after carrying out preliminary control studies.

C-H Functionalization of Azines

Azines, which are six-membered aromatic compounds containing one or more nitrogen atoms, serve as ubiquitous structural cores of aromatic species with important applications in biological and materials sciences. Among a variety of synthetic approaches toward azines, C-H functionalization represents the most rapid and atom-economical transformation, and it is advantageous for the late-stage functionalization of azine-containing functional molecules. Since azines have several C-H bonds with different reactivities, the development of new reactions that allow for the functionalization of azines in a regioselective fashion has comprised a central issue. This review describes recent advances in the C-H functionalization of azines categorized as follows: (1) S_NAr reactions, (2) radical reactions, (3) deprotonation/functionalization, and (4) metal-catalyzed reactions.

Oxidative C-H/C-H Coupling Reactions between Two (Hetero)arenes

Transition metal-mediated C-H bond activation and functionalization represent one of the most straightforward and powerful tools in modern organic synthetic chemistry. Bi(hetero)aryls are privileged π-conjugated structural cores in biologically active molecules, organic functional materials, ligands, and organic synthetic intermediates. The oxidative C-H/C-H coupling reactions between two (hetero)arenes through 2-fold C-H activation offer a valuable opportunity for rapid assembly of diverse bi(hetero)aryls and further exploitation of their applications in pharmaceutical and material sciences. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals and applications of transition metal-mediated/catalyzed oxidative C-H/C-H coupling reactions between two (hetero)arenes. The substrate scope, limitation, reaction mechanism, regioselectivity, and chemoselectivity, as well as related control strategies of these reactions are discussed. Additionally, the applications of these established methods in the synthesis of natural products and exploitation of new organic functional materials are exemplified. In the last section, a short introduction on oxidant- or Lewis acid-mediated oxidative Ar-H/Ar-H coupling reactions is presented, considering that it is a very powerful method for the construction of biaryl units and polycylic arenes.

Substituent effect on the N-oxidation of 1,10-phenanthroline derivatives by peroxomonosulfate ion

Both the acidity of a series of substituted 1,10-phenanthrolines and their reactivity towardsN-oxidation are predominantly governed by electronic effects.

Copper-promoted site-selective carbonylation of sp3 and sp2 C-H bonds with nitromethane

Copper-promoted direct carbonylation of unactivated sp3 C-H and aromatic sp2 C-H bonds of amides was developed using nitromethane as a novel carbonyl source. The sp3 C-H functionalization showed high site-selectivity by favoring the C-H bonds of α-methyl groups. The sp2 C-H carbonylation featured high regioselectivity and good functional group compatibility. Kinetic isotope effect studies indicated that the sp3 C-H bond breaking step is reversible, whereas the sp2 C-H bond cleavage is an irreversible but not the rate-determining step. Control experiments showed that a nitromethyl intermediate should be involved in the present reaction.

In Situ Generated HypoIodite Activator for the C2 Sulfonylation of Heteroaromatic N-oxides

A mild approach for direct C2 sulfonylation of heteroaromatic N-oxides with sulfonyl hydrazides affording 2-sulfonyl quinolines/pyridines has been developed. A variety of heteroaromatic N-oxides and sulfonyl hydrazides participate effectively in this transformation which uses hypoiodites (generated in situ from NaI and TBHP) as a means of substrate activators. In this reaction, the N-oxide plays a dual role, acting as a traceless directing group as well as a source of oxygen atom.

Pyridine-enabled copper-promoted cross dehydrogenative coupling of C(sp2)-H and unactivated C(sp3)-H bonds

The pyridine-enabled cross dehydrogenative coupling of sp2 C-H bonds of polyfluoroarenes and unactivated sp3 C-H bonds of amides was achieved via a copper-promoted process with good functional group compatibility. This reaction showed great site-selectivity by favoring the sp2 C-H bonds ortho to two fluoro atoms of arenes and the sp3 C-H bonds of α-methyl groups over those of the α-methylene, β- or γ-methyl groups of the aliphatic amides. Mechanistic studies revealed that sp3 C-H bond cleavage is an irreversible but not the rate-determining step, and the sp2 C-H functionalization of arenes appears precedent to the sp3 C-H functionalization of amides in this process.

Copper-Catalyzed Formal [4 + 1] Cycloaddition of Benzamides and Isonitriles via Directed C-H Cleavage

A copper-catalyzed formal [4 + 1] cycloaddition of benzamides and isonitriles via 8-aminoquinoline-directed C-H cleavage has been developed. The reaction proceeds well even in the presence of a base metal catalyst, CuBr·SMe2, alone to deliver the corresponding 3-iminoisoindolinones in good yields. Moreover, the unique acceleration effects of diphenyl sulfide are also disclosed.

Regioselective decarboxylative cross-coupling of carboxy isoquinoline N-oxides

A straightforward method for direct decarboxylative arylation of 1- and 3-carboxy isoquinaldic acid N-oxides with aryl iodides is reported. The reaction proceeded selectively at the carboxy function site to exclusively give the corresponding C-1 or C-3 arylated product. This methodology tolerates various aryl iodides substituted by electronically different groups. Combined with subsequent Reissert-Henze chlorination and SNAr amination, the decarboxylative arylation provides an efficient access to 1,3-functionalized isoquinoline-based antitumor agent.