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Wang Z, Zhou J, Zhang Y, Zhu W, Li Y. Accessing Highly Efficient Photothermal Conversion with Stable Open-Shell Aromatic Nitric Acid Radicals. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202113653. [PMID: 34978127 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202113653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
It is very challenging to prepare stable radicals as they are usually thermodynamically or kinetically unstable in air. Herein, a series of star-shaped aromatic nitric acid radicals were prepared via facile demethylation and consequent oxidation. As phenol radicals without steric hindrance group protection, they exhibit high electrochemical and thermal stability due to their rich resonance structures including closed-shell nitro-like and open-shell nitroxide structure with unpaired electrons delocalized in conjugated backbones. Among them, TPA-TPA-O6 powder exhibited extremely wide absorption from 300 to 2000 nm covering the whole solar spectral irradiance, high photothermal conversion efficiency, and negligible photobleaching effect in seawater desalination. Under the irradiation of one sunlight, the water evaporation efficiency of TPA-TPA-O6 is recorded to be as high as 89.41 % and the water evaporation rate is 1.293 kg m-2 h-1 , which represents the top performance in pure organic small molecule photothermal materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zejun Wang
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, P. R. China
| | - Jiawen Zhou
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, P. R. China
| | - Yiheng Zhang
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, P. R. China
| | - Weiya Zhu
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, P. R. China
| | - Yuan Li
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, P. R. China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Luminescence from Molecular Aggregates, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, P. R. China
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2
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Wang Z, Zhou J, Zhang Y, Zhu W, Li Y. Accessing Highly Efficient Photothermal Conversion with Stable Open‐Shell Aromatic Nitric Acid Radicals. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202113653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zejun Wang
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices South China University of Technology Guangzhou 510640 P. R. China
| | - Jiawen Zhou
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices South China University of Technology Guangzhou 510640 P. R. China
| | - Yiheng Zhang
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices South China University of Technology Guangzhou 510640 P. R. China
| | - Weiya Zhu
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices South China University of Technology Guangzhou 510640 P. R. China
| | - Yuan Li
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices South China University of Technology Guangzhou 510640 P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Luminescence from Molecular Aggregates South China University of Technology Guangzhou 510640 P. R. China
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3
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Rajca A, Shu C, Zhang H, Zhang S, Wang H, Rajca S. Thiophene-Based Double Helices: Radical Cations with SOMO-HOMO Energy Level Inversion †. Photochem Photobiol 2021; 97:1376-1390. [PMID: 34152605 DOI: 10.1111/php.13475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We report relatively persistent, open-shell thiophene-based double helices, radical cations 1•+ -TMS12 and 2•+ -TMS8 . Closed-shell neutral double helices, 1-TMS12 and 2-TMS8 , have nearly identical first oxidation potentials, E+/0 ≈ +1.33 V, corresponding to reversible oxidation to their radical cations. The radical cations are generated, using tungsten hexachloride in dichloromethane (DCM) as an oxidant, E+/0 ≈ +1.56 V. EPR spectra consist of a relatively sharp singlet peak with an unusually low g-value of 2.001-2.002, thus suggesting exclusive delocalization of spin density over π-conjugated system consisting of carbon atoms only. DFT computations confirm these findings, as only negligible fraction of spin density is found on sulfur and silicon atoms and the spin density is delocalized over a single tetrathiophene moiety. For radical cation, 1•+ -TMS12 , energy level of the singly occupied molecular orbital (SOMO) lies below the four highest occupied molecular orbitals (HOMOs), thus indicating the SOMO-HOMO inversion (SHI) and therefore, violating the Aufbau principle. 1•+ -TMS12 has a half-life of the order of only 5 min at room temperature. EPR peak intensity of 2•+ -TMS8 , which does not show SHI, is practically unchanged over at least 2 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Rajca
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Chan Shu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | - Sheng Zhang
- Engineering Research Center for Nanomaterials, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Hua Wang
- Engineering Research Center for Nanomaterials, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Suchada Rajca
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
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4
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Shu C, Pink M, Junghoefer T, Nadler E, Rajca S, Casu MB, Rajca A. Synthesis and Thin Films of Thermally Robust Quartet ( S = 3/2) Ground State Triradical. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:5508-5518. [PMID: 33787241 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c01305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
High-spin (S = 3/2) organic triradicals may offer enhanced properties with respect to several emerging technologies, but those synthesized to date typically exhibit small doublet quartet energy gaps and/or possess limited thermal stability and processability. We report a quartet ground state triradical 3, synthesized by a Pd(0)-catalyzed radical-radical cross-coupling reaction, which possesses two doublet-quartet energy gaps, ΔEDQ ≈ 0.2-0.3 kcal mol-1 and ΔEDQ2 ≈ 1.2-1.8 kcal mol-1. The triradical has a 70+% population of the quartet ground state at room temperature and good thermal stability with onset of decomposition at >160 °C under an inert atmosphere. Magnetic properties of 3 are characterized by SQUID magnetometry in polystyrene glass and by quantitative EPR spectroscopy. Triradical 3 is evaporated under ultrahigh vacuum to form thin films of intact triradicals on silicon substrate, as confirmed by high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. AFM and SEM images of the ∼1 nm thick films indicate that the triradical molecules form islands on the substrate. The films are stable under ultrahigh vacuum for at least 17 h but show onset of decomposition after 4 h at ambient conditions. The drop-cast films are less prone to degradation in air and have a longer lifetime.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Shu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, United States
| | - Maren Pink
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405-7102, United States
| | - Tobias Junghoefer
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Elke Nadler
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Suchada Rajca
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, United States
| | - Maria Benedetta Casu
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andrzej Rajca
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, United States
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5
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Chapyshev SV, Korchagin DV, Misochko EY. Recent advances in chemistry of high-spin nitrenes. RUSSIAN CHEMICAL REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.1070/rcr4965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Experimental and theoretical studies on aromatic nitrenes bearing from three to six unpaired electrons and having quartet, quintet, sextet or septet ground spin states, published in the last 15 years are analyzed. A comparative analysis of the magnetic properties of high-spin nitrenes and all other known high-spin organic molecules is performed. Promising areas of practical application of high-spin nitrenes as molecular magnets and as qubits and qudits for quantum computations are discussed.
The bibliography includes 214 references.
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6
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Zhu X. Development of analytical prediction method for designing organic ferromagnets with heteroatoms. Chem Phys Lett 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2020.137972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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7
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Shu C, Zhang H, Olankitwanit A, Rajca S, Rajca A. High-Spin Diradical Dication of Chiral π-Conjugated Double Helical Molecule. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:17287-17294. [PMID: 31596077 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b08711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
We report an air-stable diradical dication of chiral D2-symmetric conjoined bis[5]diazahelicene with an unprecedented high-spin (triplet) ground state, singlet triplet energy gap, ΔEST = 0.3 kcal mol-1. The diradical dication possesses closed-shell (Kekulé) resonance forms with 16 π-electron perimeters. The diradical dication is monomeric in dibutyl phthalate (DBP) matrix at low temperatures, and it has a half-life of more than 2 weeks at ambient conditions in the presence of excess oxidant. A barrier of ∼35 kcal mol-1 has been experimentally determined for inversion of configuration in the neutral conjoined bis[5]diazahelicene, while the inversion barriers in its radical cation and diradical dication were predicted by the DFT computations to be within a few kcal mol-1 of that in the neutral species. Chiral HPLC resolution provides the chiral D2-symmetric conjoined bis[5]diazahelicene, enriched in (P,P)- or (M,M)-enantiomers. The enantiomerically enriched triplet diradical dication is configurationally stable for 48 h at room temperature, thus providing the lower limit for inversion barrier of configuration of 27 kcal mol-1. The enantiomers of conjoined bis[5]diazahelicene and its diradical dication show strong chirooptical properties that are comparable to [6]helicene or carbon-sulfur [7]helicene, as determined by the anisotropy factors, |g| = |Δε|/ε = 0.007 at 348 nm (neutral) and |g| = 0.005 at 385 nm (diradical dication). DFT computations of the radical cation suggest that SOMO and HOMO energy levels are near-degenerate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Shu
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588-0304 , United States
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588-0304 , United States
| | - Arnon Olankitwanit
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588-0304 , United States
| | - Suchada Rajca
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588-0304 , United States
| | - Andrzej Rajca
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588-0304 , United States
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8
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Gallagher N, Zhang H, Junghoefer T, Giangrisostomi E, Ovsyannikov R, Pink M, Rajca S, Casu MB, Rajca A. Thermally and Magnetically Robust Triplet Ground State Diradical. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:4764-4774. [PMID: 30816035 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b00558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
High spin ( S = 1) organic diradicals may offer enhanced properties with respect to several emerging technologies, but typically exhibit low singlet triplet energy gaps and possess limited thermal stability. We report triplet ground state diradical 2 with a large singlet-triplet energy gap, Δ EST ≥ 1.7 kcal mol-1, leading to nearly exclusive population of triplet ground state at room temperature, and good thermal stability with onset of decomposition at ∼160 °C under inert atmosphere. Magnetic properties of 2 and the previously prepared diradical 1 are characterized by SQUID magnetometry of polycrystalline powders, in polystyrene glass, and in other matrices. Polycrystalline diradical 2 forms a novel one-dimensional (1D) spin-1 ( S = 1) chain of organic radicals with intrachain antiferromagnetic coupling of J'/ k = -14 K, which is associated with the N···N and N···O intermolecular contacts. The intrachain antiferromagnetic coupling in 2 is by far strongest among all studied 1D S = 1 chains of organic radicals, which also makes 1D S = 1 chains of 2 most isotropic, and therefore an excellent system for studies of low-dimensional magnetism. In polystyrene glass and in frozen benzene or dibutyl phthalate solution, both 1 and 2 are monomeric. Diradical 2 is thermally robust and is evaporated under ultrahigh vacuum to form thin films of intact diradicals on silicon substrate, as demonstrated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Based on C-K NEXAFS spectra and AFM images of the ∼1.5 nm thick films, the diradical molecules form islands on the substrate with molecules stacked approximately along the crystallographic a-axis. The films are stable under ultrahigh vacuum for at least 60 h but show signs of decomposition when exposed to ambient conditions for 7 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nolan Gallagher
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588-0304 , United States
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588-0304 , United States
| | - Tobias Junghoefer
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Tübingen , 72076 Tübingen , Germany
| | - Erika Giangrisostomi
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie (HZB) , Albert-Einstein-Str 15 , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Ruslan Ovsyannikov
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie (HZB) , Albert-Einstein-Str 15 , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Maren Pink
- Department of Chemistry , Indiana University , Bloomington , Indiana 47405-7102 , United States
| | - Suchada Rajca
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588-0304 , United States
| | - Maria Benedetta Casu
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Tübingen , 72076 Tübingen , Germany
| | - Andrzej Rajca
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Nebraska 68588-0304 , United States
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9
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Skórka Ł, Maurel V, Gosk JB, Puźniak R, Mouesca JM, Kulszewicz-Bajer I. Highly Efficient Tuning of Ferromagnetic Spin Interactions in High-Spin Arylamine Structures by Incorporation of Spin Bearing Carbazole Units. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:9584-9591. [PMID: 30230334 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b07496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Arylamine moieties oxidized to radical cations are considered promising spin bearing units in high-spin-type compounds. Here, we report the first use of carbazole-3,6-diamine units as efficient, rigid spin containing units. The use of rigid spin bearing units enhances significantly spin exchange interactions. The design using density functional theory calculations shows the progressive increase of the exchange coupling constant dependent on the considered model molecules. Two of the most representative molecules containing flexible (dimer 1) and rigid spin coupling unit (dimer 2) were synthesized. Electrochemical and pulsed-electron paramagnetic resonance nutation studies showed that both dimers can be oxidized to yield a majority of dicationic diradicals exhibiting S = 1 ground states. The high values of the dimer 2 exchange coupling constant obtained both computationally ( J/ kB = 145 K; HHeis. = - JS1 S2) and experimentally ( J/ kB = 90-100 K) indicate the beneficial role of the carbazole moiety incorporated into spin bearing units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Skórka
- Faculty of Chemistry , Warsaw University of Technology , Noakowskiego 3 , 00-664 Warsaw , Poland
| | - Vincent Maurel
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, INAC, SyMMES , 38000 Grenoble , France
| | - Jacek B Gosk
- Faculty of Physics , Warsaw University of Technology , Koszykowa 75 , 00-662 Warsaw , Poland
| | - Roman Puźniak
- Institute of Physics , Polish Academy of Sciences , Lotników 32/46 , 02-668 Warsaw , Poland
| | | | - Irena Kulszewicz-Bajer
- Faculty of Chemistry , Warsaw University of Technology , Noakowskiego 3 , 00-664 Warsaw , Poland
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10
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Song M, Song X, Bu Y. Spin coupling interactions in C[double bond, length as m-dash]C or B-B-cored porphyrin-mimetic graphene patch nitroxide diradicals. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018. [PMID: 29517098 DOI: 10.1039/c8cp00105g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In view of the unique structures and promising applications of porphyrins and their derivatives, exploration of their various properties has continued to a hot topic. In this work, we combine porphyrin-mimetic graphene patches which are core-modified by a C[double bond, length as m-dash]C or a B-B unit and two nitroxide radical groups to construct a series of novel diradical molecules (the CC-cored or BB-cored molecules). The spin coupling constants (J) of diradicals were calculated at the (U)B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level by considering the different linking modes of two nitroxide groups. The results indicate that different core modification considerably affects the J values of such diradicals, and the linking modes can tune the sizes and signs of J, changing their magnetic coupling interactions with different magnitudes and the signs of J from antiferromagnetic to ferromagnetic or vice versa. More interestingly and importantly, the spin coupling interactions of the CC-cored molecules can also be tuned by stretching the core unit C-C bond, suggesting the possibility of activating specific vibrational modes of the CC-cored diradicals by energy pulses to yield variable J coupling magnitudes. On the other hand, for the BB-cored molecules, two-electron reduction can switch or tune their magnetism from ferromagnetic to antiferromagnetic. The essence of all observations is further analyzed from the structural effects and orbital and spin density distributions. The findings about magnetic regulation in these core-modified porphyrin-mimetic graphene patch nitroxide diradicals further expand the field of molecular magnets and provide a rational theoretical basis for designing novel building blocks of magnetic functional molecular materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiyu Song
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xinyu Song
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yuxiang Bu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, People's Republic of China. and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, People's Republic of China
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11
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Skorka L, Kurzep P, Chauviré T, Dubois L, Mouesca JM, Maurel V, Kulszewicz-Bajer I. High-Spin Polymers: Ferromagnetic Coupling of S = 1 Hexaazacyclophane Units up to a Pure S = 2 Polycyclophane. J Phys Chem B 2017; 121:4293-4298. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b01531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lukasz Skorka
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Kurzep
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Timothée Chauviré
- Université Grenoble Alpes, INAC, SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
- CEA, INAC, SYMMES, F-38054 Grenoble, France
| | - Lionel Dubois
- Université Grenoble Alpes, INAC, SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
- CEA, INAC, SYMMES, F-38054 Grenoble, France
| | - Jean-Marie Mouesca
- Université Grenoble Alpes, INAC, SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
- CEA, INAC, SYMMES, F-38054 Grenoble, France
| | - Vincent Maurel
- Université Grenoble Alpes, INAC, SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
- CEA, INAC, SYMMES, F-38054 Grenoble, France
| | - Irena Kulszewicz-Bajer
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland
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12
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Gallagher NM, Bauer JJ, Pink M, Rajca S, Rajca A. High-Spin Organic Diradical with Robust Stability. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:9377-80. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b05080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nolan M. Gallagher
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, United States
| | - Jackson J. Bauer
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, United States
| | - Maren Pink
- IUMSC,
Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405-7102, United States
| | - Suchada Rajca
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, United States
| | - Andrzej Rajca
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0304, United States
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13
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Wingate AJ, Boudouris BW. Recent advances in the syntheses of radical-containing macromolecules. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/pola.28088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Adam J. Wingate
- School of Chemical Engineering; Purdue University; West Lafayette Indiana 47907
| | - Bryan W. Boudouris
- School of Chemical Engineering; Purdue University; West Lafayette Indiana 47907
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