1
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Jozeliu̅naitė A, Neniškis A, Bertran A, Bowen AM, Di Valentin M, Raišys S, Baronas P, Kazlauskas K, Vilčiauskas L, Orentas E. Fullerene Complexation in a Hydrogen-Bonded Porphyrin Receptor via Induced-Fit: Cooperative Action of Tautomerization and C-H···π Interactions. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 145:455-464. [PMID: 36546690 PMCID: PMC9837862 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c10668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A supramolecular chiral hydrogen-bonded tetrameric aggregate possessing a large cavity and tetraarylporphyrin substituents was assembled using alternating 4H- and 2H-bonds between ureidopyrimidinone and isocytosine units, respectively. The aggregation mode was rationally shifted from social to narcissistic self-sorting by changing urea substituent size only. The H-bonded tetramer forms a strong complex with C60 guest, at the same time undergoing remarkable structural changes. Namely, the cavity adjusts to the guest via keto-to-enol tautomerization of the ureidopyrimidinone unit and as a result, porphyrin substituents move apart from each other in a scissor blade-like opening fashion. The rearrangement is accompanied by C-H···π interaction between the alkyl solubilizing groups and the nearby placed porphyrin π-systems. The latter interaction was found to be crucial for the guest complexation event, providing energetic compensation for otherwise costly tautomerization. We showed that only the systems possessing sufficiently long alkyl chains capable of interacting with a porphyrin ring are able to form a complex with C60. The structural rearrangement of the tetramer was quantitatively characterized by electron paramagnetic resonance pulsed dipolar spectroscopy measurements using photogenerated triplets of porphyrin and C60 as spin probes. Further exploring the C-H···π interaction as a decisive element for the C60 recognition, we investigated the guest-induced self-sorting phenomenon using scrambled tetramer assemblies composed of two types of monomers possessing alkyl chains of different lengths. The presence of the fullerene guest has enabled the selective scavenging of monomers capable of C-H···π interaction to form homo-tetrameric aggregates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Algirdas Neniškis
- Institute
of Chemistry, Vilnius University, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Arnau Bertran
- Centre
for Advanced Electron Spin Resonance and Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory,
Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, OX1 3QR Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alice M. Bowen
- Department
of Chemistry, Photon Science Institute and The National EPR Research
Facility, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Marilena Di Valentin
- Department
of Chemical Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy,Centro
Interdipartimentale di Ricerca “Centro Studi di Economia e
Tecnica dell’energia Giorgio Levi Cases”, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Steponas Raišys
- Institute
of Photonics and Nanotechnology, Vilnius
University, Saulėtekio
av. 3, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Paulius Baronas
- Institute
of Photonics and Nanotechnology, Vilnius
University, Saulėtekio
av. 3, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Karolis Kazlauskas
- Institute
of Photonics and Nanotechnology, Vilnius
University, Saulėtekio
av. 3, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Linas Vilčiauskas
- Institute
of Chemistry, Vilnius University, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania,Center
for Physical Sciences and Technology (FTMC), Saulėtekio al. 3, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Edvinas Orentas
- Institute
of Chemistry, Vilnius University, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania,
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2
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Fargher HA, Sherbow TJ, Haley MM, Johnson DW, Pluth MD. C-H⋯S hydrogen bonding interactions. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:1454-1469. [PMID: 35103265 PMCID: PMC9088610 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00838b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The short C-H⋯S contacts found in available structural data for both small molecules and larger biomolecular systems suggest that such contacts are an often overlooked yet important stabilizing interaction. Moreover, many of these short C-H⋯S contacts meet the definition of a hydrogen bonding interaction. Using available structural data from the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD), as well as selected examples from the literature in which important C-H⋯S contacts may have been overlooked, we highlight the generality of C-H⋯S hydrogen bonding as an important stabilizing interaction. To uncover and establish the generality of these interactions, we compare C-H⋯S contacts with other traditional hydrogen bond donors and acceptors as well as investigate how coordination number and metal bonding affect the preferred geometry of interactions in the solid state. This work establishes that the C-H⋯S bond meets the definition of a hydrogen bond and serves as a guide to identify C-H⋯S hydrogen bonds in diverse systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel A. Fargher
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Materials Science Institute, Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, and Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 97403-1253, USA
| | - Tobias J. Sherbow
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Materials Science Institute, Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, and Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 97403-1253, USA
| | - Michael M. Haley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Materials Science Institute, Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, and Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 97403-1253, USA
| | - Darren W. Johnson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Materials Science Institute, Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, and Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 97403-1253, USA
| | - Michael D. Pluth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Materials Science Institute, Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, and Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 97403-1253, USA
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3
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Casademont‐Reig I, Guerrero‐Avilés R, Ramos‐Cordoba E, Torrent‐Sucarrat M, Matito E. How Aromatic Are Molecular Nanorings? The Case of a Six-Porphyrin Nanoring*. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:24080-24088. [PMID: 34260804 PMCID: PMC8596448 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202108997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Large conjugated rings with persistent currents are novel promising structures in molecular-scale electronics. A six-porphyrin nanoring structure that allegedly sustained an aromatic ring current involving 78π electrons was recently synthesized. We provide here compelling evidence that this molecule is not aromatic, contrary to what was inferred from the analysis of 1 H-NMR data and computational calculations that suffer from large delocalization errors. The main reason behind the absence of an aromatic ring current in these nanorings is the low delocalization in the transition from the porphyrins to the bridging butadiyne linkers, which disrupts the overall conjugated circuit. These results highlight the importance of choosing a suitable computational method to study large conjugated molecules and the appropriate aromaticity descriptors to identify the part of the molecule responsible for the loss of aromaticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Casademont‐Reig
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)20018DonostiaEuskadiSpain
- Polimero eta Material Aurreratuak: Fisika, Kimika eta TeknologiaKimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHUP.K. 107220080DonostiaEuskadiSpain
| | - Raúl Guerrero‐Avilés
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)20018DonostiaEuskadiSpain
- Centro de Física de MaterialesCFM-MPC CSIC-UPV/EHU20018DonostiaEuskadiSpain
| | - Eloy Ramos‐Cordoba
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)20018DonostiaEuskadiSpain
- Polimero eta Material Aurreratuak: Fisika, Kimika eta TeknologiaKimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHUP.K. 107220080DonostiaEuskadiSpain
| | - Miquel Torrent‐Sucarrat
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)20018DonostiaEuskadiSpain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for SciencePlaza Euskadi 548009BilbaoEuskadiSpain
- Department of Organic Chemistry IUniversidad del Pais Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU)20018DonostiaEuskadiSpain
| | - Eduard Matito
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)20018DonostiaEuskadiSpain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for SciencePlaza Euskadi 548009BilbaoEuskadiSpain
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4
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Casademont‐Reig I, Guerrero‐Avilés R, Ramos‐Cordoba E, Torrent‐Sucarrat M, Matito E. How Aromatic Are Molecular Nanorings? The Case of a Six‐Porphyrin Nanoring**. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202108997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Casademont‐Reig
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC) 20018 Donostia Euskadi Spain
- Polimero eta Material Aurreratuak: Fisika, Kimika eta Teknologia Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU P.K. 1072 20080 Donostia Euskadi Spain
| | - Raúl Guerrero‐Avilés
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC) 20018 Donostia Euskadi Spain
- Centro de Física de Materiales CFM-MPC CSIC-UPV/EHU 20018 Donostia Euskadi Spain
| | - Eloy Ramos‐Cordoba
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC) 20018 Donostia Euskadi Spain
- Polimero eta Material Aurreratuak: Fisika, Kimika eta Teknologia Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU P.K. 1072 20080 Donostia Euskadi Spain
| | - Miquel Torrent‐Sucarrat
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC) 20018 Donostia Euskadi Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science Plaza Euskadi 5 48009 Bilbao Euskadi Spain
- Department of Organic Chemistry I Universidad del Pais Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) 20018 Donostia Euskadi Spain
| | - Eduard Matito
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC) 20018 Donostia Euskadi Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science Plaza Euskadi 5 48009 Bilbao Euskadi Spain
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5
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Bellamy-Carter A, Roche C, Anderson HL, Saywell A. Self-assembly of a strapped linear porphyrin oligomer on HOPG. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20388. [PMID: 34650172 PMCID: PMC8516934 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99881-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymeric structures based on porphyrin units exhibit a range of complex properties, such as nanoscale charge transport and quantum interference effects, and have the potential to act as biomimetic materials for light-harvesting and catalysis. These functionalities are based upon the characteristics of the porphyrin monomers, but are also emergent properties of the extended polymer system. Incorporation of these properties within solid-state devices requires transfer of the polymers to a supporting substrate, and may require a high-degree of lateral order. Here we show that highly ordered self-assembled structures can be formed via a simple solution deposition protocol; for a strapped linear porphyrin oligomer adsorbed on a highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) substrate. Two distinct molecule–molecule interactions are observed to drive the formation of two molecular phases (‘Interdigitated’ and ‘Bridge-stabilised’) characterised by scanning tunnelling microscopy, providing information on the unit cell dimensions and self-assembled structure. The concentration dependence of these phases is investigated, and we conclude that the bridge-stabilised phase is a thermodynamically stable structure at room temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cécile Roche
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Harry L Anderson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Alex Saywell
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
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6
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Flanagan KJ, Paradiz Dominguez M, Melissari Z, Eckhardt HG, Williams RM, Gibbons D, Prior C, Locke GM, Meindl A, Ryan AA, Senge MO. Structural effects of meso-halogenation on porphyrins. Beilstein J Org Chem 2021; 17:1149-1170. [PMID: 34093881 PMCID: PMC8144917 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.17.88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of halogens in the crystal engineering of supramolecular porphyrin assemblies has been a topic of strong interest over the past decades. With this in mind we have characterized a series of direct meso-halogenated porphyrins using single crystal X-ray crystallography. This is accompanied by a detailed conformational analysis of all deposited meso-halogenated porphyrins in the CSD. In this study we have used the Hirshfeld fingerprint plots together with normal-coordinate structural decomposition and determined crystal structures to elucidate the conformation, present intermolecular interactions, and compare respective contacts within the crystalline architectures. Additionally, we have used density functional theory calculations to determine the structure of several halogenated porphyrins. This contrasts conformational analysis with existing X-ray structures and gives a method to characterize samples that are difficult to crystallize. By using the methods outlined above we were able to deduce the impact a meso halogen has on a porphyrin, for example, meso-halogenation is dependent on the type of alternate substituents present when forming supramolecular assemblies. Furthermore, we have designed a method to predict the conformation of halogenated porphyrins, without need of crystallization, using DFT calculations with a high degree of accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith J Flanagan
- School of Chemistry, Chair of Organic Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, 152–160 Pearse Street, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Maximilian Paradiz Dominguez
- Van ‘t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Zoi Melissari
- School of Chemistry, Chair of Organic Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, 152–160 Pearse Street, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Van ‘t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hans-Georg Eckhardt
- School of Chemistry, Chair of Organic Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, 152–160 Pearse Street, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - René M Williams
- Van ‘t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dáire Gibbons
- School of Chemistry, Chair of Organic Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, 152–160 Pearse Street, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Caroline Prior
- School of Chemistry, Chair of Organic Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, 152–160 Pearse Street, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Gemma M Locke
- School of Chemistry, Chair of Organic Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, 152–160 Pearse Street, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Alina Meindl
- School of Chemistry, Chair of Organic Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, 152–160 Pearse Street, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Aoife A Ryan
- School of Chemistry, Chair of Organic Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, 152–160 Pearse Street, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Mathias O Senge
- School of Chemistry, Chair of Organic Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, 152–160 Pearse Street, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
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7
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Ochiai H, Furukawa K, Nakano H, Matano Y. Doubly Strapped Redox-Switchable 5,10,15,20-Tetraaryl-5,15-diazaporphyrinoids: Promising Platforms for the Evaluation of Paratropic and Diatropic Ring-Current Effects. J Org Chem 2021; 86:2283-2296. [PMID: 33411514 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.0c02433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a novel series of chemically stable and redox-switchable 20π, 19π, and 18π 5,10,15,20-tetraaryl-5,15-diazaporphyrinoids (TADAPs) that have two alkyl-chain straps above and below the diazaporphyrin ring. Three types of doubly strapped TADAPs were prepared as nickel(II) complexes using meso-N-(2,6-dihydroxyphenyl)-substituted TADAP and the corresponding aliphatic diacids as precursors. Theoretical calculations revealed that regardless of their oxidation states, all strapped TADAPs had essentially flat π-planes. It was found that the alkyl-chain straps slightly affected the optical and electrochemical properties of the DAP rings, particularly in the oxidized forms. 1H NMR spectroscopy was used to evaluate the antiaromatic character of the 20π TADAPs and the aromatic character of the 18π TADAP dications, and it was observed that they displayed paratropic and diatropic ring-current effects, respectively, on the chemical shifts of methylene protons in the spatially separated alkyl chains. The degree of shielding and deshielding depended on the position of the methylene units; it decreased with increase in separation from the π-plane and central axis of the porphyrin ring. The NMR experiments also revealed that the degree of the diatropic ring currents was clearly related to the π-electron density of the porphyrin ring; the ring-current effects decreased as the charge increased from 0 to +2. These findings are also qualitatively supported by the nucleus-independent chemical shifts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hikari Ochiai
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Niigata University, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Ko Furukawa
- Center for Coordination of Research Facilities, Institute for Research Promotion, Niigata University, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan.,Institute for Molecular Science, Nishigo-naka 38, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
| | - Haruyuki Nakano
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyushu University, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Matano
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Niigata University, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
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8
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Shokurov AV, Meshkov IN, Bulach V, Gorbunova YG, Hosseini MW, Tsivadze AY, Arslanov VV, Selektor SL. Restriction of the rotational relaxation of a butadiyne-bridged porphyrin dimer in ultrathin films. NEW J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9nj01807g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A way to stabilize the less energetically viable orthogonal conformation of a porphyrin dimer by means of a forced orientation at an interface is shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V. Shokurov
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - Ivan N. Meshkov
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - Véronique Bulach
- Molecular Tectonics Laboratory
- UMR UDS-CNRS
- 7140 & icFRC
- Université de Strasbourg
- Strasbourg
| | - Yulia G. Gorbunova
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences
- Moscow
- Russia
- Kurnakov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry
- Russian Academy of Sciences
| | - Mir Wais Hosseini
- Molecular Tectonics Laboratory
- UMR UDS-CNRS
- 7140 & icFRC
- Université de Strasbourg
- Strasbourg
| | - Aslan Yu. Tsivadze
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences
- Moscow
- Russia
- Kurnakov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry
- Russian Academy of Sciences
| | - Vladimir V. Arslanov
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - Sofia L. Selektor
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences
- Moscow
- Russia
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9
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Leary E, Roche C, Jiang HW, Grace I, González MT, Rubio-Bollinger G, Romero-Muñiz C, Xiong Y, Al-Galiby Q, Noori M, Lebedeva MA, Porfyrakis K, Agrait N, Hodgson A, Higgins SJ, Lambert CJ, Anderson HL, Nichols RJ. Detecting Mechanochemical Atropisomerization within an STM Break Junction. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:710-718. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b10542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Edmund Leary
- Department
of Chemistry, Donnan and Robert Robinson Laboratories, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
- Surface Science
Research Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Oxford Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Cécile Roche
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Hua-Wei Jiang
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Iain Grace
- Department
of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, U.K
| | - M. Teresa González
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Advanzados (IMDEA), Calle Faraday 9, Campus Universitario de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Yaoyao Xiong
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Qusiy Al-Galiby
- Department
of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, U.K
- Department
of Physics, College of Education, University of Al-Qadisiyah, 58002 Iraq
| | - Mohammed Noori
- Department
of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, U.K
- Department
of Physics, Collage of Science, Thi-Qar University, Thi-Qar 00964, Iraq
| | | | | | - Nicolás Agrait
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Advanzados (IMDEA), Calle Faraday 9, Campus Universitario de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrew Hodgson
- Department
of Chemistry, Donnan and Robert Robinson Laboratories, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
- Surface Science
Research Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Oxford Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Simon J. Higgins
- Department
of Chemistry, Donnan and Robert Robinson Laboratories, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
| | | | - Harry L. Anderson
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Richard J. Nichols
- Department
of Chemistry, Donnan and Robert Robinson Laboratories, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
- Surface Science
Research Centre and Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Oxford Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
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