Isoindolinone Synthesis: Selective Dioxane-Mediated Aerobic Oxidation of Isoindolines

Palladium-catalyzed regioselective carbonylation of 2-amino-2,3-diphenylpropanoate to 5/6-membered benzolactams

Five/six-membered benzolactams are significant blocks in both organic and medicinal chemistry. Achieving 5/6-membered benzolactams from the same starting compound under varying reaction conditions presents a significant challenge. Herein, palladium-catalyzed free amine-oriented regioselective C-H activations/carbonylations mediated by hexacarbonylmolybdenum, leading to diverse sizes of benzolactams, respectively, have been developed. Six-membered dihydroisoquinolinones can be obtained selectively in acetic acid using benzoquinone as an oxidant. While unfavorable five-membered isoindolinones were formed in the presence of Cu(II) as an oxidant and dihydrooxazole ligands in 1,2-dichlorobenzene. The substituents on the phenyl ring also had a great influence on the regioselectivity of the reaction. In addition, an asymmetric version of the reaction has also been attempted preliminarily.

Mild Catalyst- and Additive-Free Three-Component Synthesis of 3-Thioisoindolinones and Tricyclic γ-Lactams Accelerated by Microdroplet Chemistry

Isoindolinones, bearing both γ-lactam and aromatic rings, draw extensive interest in organic, pharmaceutical, and medicinal communities as they are important structural motifs in many natural products, bioactive compounds, and pharmaceuticals. As the main contributor to isoindolinone synthesis, metal catalysis is associated with many drawbacks including essential use of toxic/precious metals and excessive additives, high reaction temperatures, specially predesigned starting materials, and long reaction times (typically 8-30 h). In this study, we developed a catalyst- and additive-free, minute-scale, and high-yield microdroplet method for tricomponent isoindolinone synthesis at mild temperatures. By taking advantage of the astonishing reaction acceleration (1.9 × 102-9.4 × 103 acceleration factor range with a typical rate acceleration factor of 1.51 × 103 for the prototype reaction as the ratio of rate constants by microdroplet and bulk phase), 12 3-thioisoindolinones and two tricyclic γ-lactams were synthesized using various 2-acylbenzaldehydes, amines, and thiols with satisfactory yields ranging from 85% to 97% as well as a scale-up rate of 3.49 g h-1. Because of the advantages (no use of any catalysts or additives, mild temperature, rapid and satisfactory conversion, broad substrate scope, and gram scalability), the microdroplet method represents an attractive alternative to metal catalysis for laboratory synthesis of isoindolinones and their derivatives.

Strategies Toward the Catalyst-Free α-C-H Functionalizations of Tertiary Amines

α-C-H functionalization of tertiary amines has been a highly studied field for the past two decades because several important nitrogen containing heterocycles or compounds can be synthesized through this strategy. Though transition metal catalysts and some metal-free catalysts are mainly used for these reactions, a few catalyst-free reactions have recently been efficiently performed. Catalyst-free reactions are cost-effective, less sensitive to air/moisture, easier to operate, have a simple purification process, and are relatively environment-friendly. In this article, we have summarized all the α-C-H functionalization reactions of tertiary amines performed without using any external catalysts. The content of this article will undoubtedly encourage readers to do more work in this area.

Synergistic effect of hydrogen bonds and π-π interactions of B(C6F5)3·H2O/amides complex: Application in photoredox catalysis

B(C₆F₅)₃·H₂O has been long recognized as a common Brønsted acid. The lack of X-ray crystal structure of B(C₆F₅)₃·H₂O with other substrates has greatly limited the development of a new catalytic mode. In this work, a complex of B(C₆F₅)₃·H₂O and amide 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-one with hydrogen bonds and π-π interactions is characterized by X-ray diffraction. Such noncovalent interactions in solution also exist, as verified by NMR, UV-Vis absorption, and fluorescence emission measurements. Moreover, the mixture of amide 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-one and B(C₆F₅)₃·H₂O, instead of other tested Brønsted acids, shows a tailing absorption band in the visible light region (400-450 nm). Based on the photoactive properties of the complex, a photoredox catalysis is developed to construct α-aminoamides under mild conditions.

A Three-Step Method for the Preparation of N-Substituted 3,4-Dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-ones and Heteroaryl-Fused 3,4-Dihydropyridin-2(1H)-ones from 2-Bromobenzoate Precursors

We demonstrate a general method for the preparation of diverse N-substituted 3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-one compounds through an overall three-step cross-coupling/cyclization/N-deprotection/N-alkylation sequence. In the first step, ethyl 2-bromobenzoates and 2-bromo-1-carboxyethyl heterocycles are cross-coupled with commercially available potassium (2-((tert-butoxycarbonyl)amino)ethyl)trifluoroborate to produce (hetero)aryl-substituted 3-[(N-Boc-2-carboxyethyl)phenyl]ethylamines. In a subsequent two-stage process, these (hetero)arylethylamines undergo base-mediated ring closure followed by N-deprotection and N-alkylation to produce N-substituted 3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-ones and heteroaryl-fused N-benzyl 3,4-dihydropyridin-2(1H)-ones. Mechanistic work was performed to elucidate the order of transformations for the latter two-stage process. The method was also extended to the production of N-benzyl isoindolin-1-one and N-benzyl 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-benzo[c]azepin-1-one.

Selective Aerobic Oxidation of Csp3-H Bonds Catalyzed by Yeast-Derived Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Oxygen Codoped Carbon Materials

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and oxygen codoped carbon catalysts were successfully synthesized using dried yeast powder as a pyrolysis precursor. The yeast-derived heteroatom-doped carbon (yeast@C) catalysts exhibited outstanding performance in the oxidation of C_sp³-H bonds to ketones and esters, giving excellent product yields (of up to 98% yield) without organic solvents at low O₂ pressure (0.1 MPa). The catalytic oxidation protocol exhibited a broad range of substrates (38 examples) with good functional group tolerance, excellent regioselectivity, and synthetic utility. The yeast-derived heteroatom-doped carbon catalysts showed good reusability and stability after recycling six times without any significant loss of activity. Experimental results and DFT calculations proved the important role of N-oxide (N⁺-O^-) on the surface of yeast@C and a reasonable carbon radical mechanism.

A Mild Heteroatom (O-, N-, and S-) Methylation Protocol Using Trimethyl Phosphate (TMP)–Ca(OH)2Combination

A mild heteroatom methylation protocol using trimethyl phosphate (TMP)–Ca(OH)2 combination has been developed, which proceeds in DMF, or water, or under neat conditions, at 80 °C or at room temperature. A series of O-, N-, and S-nucleophiles, including phenols, sulfonamides, N-heterocycles, such as 9H-carbazole, indole derivatives, and 1,8-naphthalimide, and aryl/alkyl thiols, are suitable substrates for this protocol. The high efficiency, operational simplicity, scalability, cost-efficiency, and environmentally friendly nature of this protocol make it an attractive alternative to the conventional base-promoted heteroatom methylation procedures.

Transition metal-free advanced synthetic approaches for isoindolinones and their fused analogues

The transition metal-free synthetic protocols of isoindolinone and its fused analogues are highlighted in this review since 2007 to 2021.

Photoredox aerobic oxidation of unreactive amine derivatives through LMCT excitation of copper dichloride

Taking advantage of the chlorine radical as a HAT catalyst, a versatile oxidation system for unreactive amines has been well established.

Pd-Catalyzed C(sp2)-H olefination: synthesis of N-alkylated isoindolinone scaffolds from aryl amides of amino acid esters

Isoindolinone is a constituent of various natural products and synthetic biologically active compounds. The classical multi-step synthetic methods used to prepare various indolinone derivatives are tedious and challenging. One-pot synthetic methods are attractive and economical. Transition-metal-catalyzed C-H activation is an emerging tool for synthesizing natural products and small organic molecules via reducing the number of synthetic steps necessary. This paper describes the synthesis of N-alkyl-3-methenyl chiral isoindolinone derivatives from aryl amides of L-amino acids and non-activated alkene via Pd-catalyzed C(sp²)-H olefination. Herein, the amino acid residue acts as a directing group for olefination at the aryl ring, and then cyclization occurs at the amide NH. Hence, this methodology could be helpful to transform standard amino acids into respective chiral isoindolinone derivatives.

Electroselective and Controlled Reduction of Cyclic Imides to Hydroxylactams and Lactams

An efficient and practical electrochemical method for selective reduction of cyclic imides has been developed using a simple undivided cell with carbon electrodes at room temperature. The reaction provides a useful strategy for the rapid synthesis of hydroxylactams and lactams in a controllable manner, which is tuned by electric current and reaction time, and exhibits broad substrate scope and high functional group tolerance even to reduction-sensitive moieties. Initial mechanistic studies suggest that the approach heavily relies on the utilization of amines (e.g., i-Pr₂NH), which are able to generate α-aminoalkyl radicals. This protocol provides an efficient route for the cleavage of C-O bonds under mild conditions with high chemoselectivity.

Flavin Nitroalkane Oxidase Mimics Compatibility with NOx/TEMPO Catalysis: Aerobic Oxidization of Alcohols, Diols, and Ethers

Biomimetic flavin organocatalysts oxidize nitromethane to formaldehyde and NO_x-providing a relatively nontoxic, noncaustic, and inexpensive source for catalytic NO₂ for aerobic TEMPO oxidations of alcohols, diols, and ethers. Alcohols were oxidized to aldehydes or ketones, cyclic ethers to esters, and terminal diols to lactones. In situ trapping of NO_x and formaldehyde suggest an oxidative Nef process reminiscent of flavoprotein nitroalkane oxidase reactivity, which is achieved by relatively stable 1,10-bridged flavins. The metal-free flavin/NO_x/TEMPO catalytic cycles are uniquely compatible, especially compared to other Nef and NO_x-generating processes, and reveal selectivity over flavin-catalyzed sulfoxide formation. Aliphatic ethers were oxidized by this method, as demonstrated by the conversion of (-)-ambroxide to (+)-sclareolide.

1,2-Disubstituted Benzimidazoles by the Iron Catalyzed Cross-Dehydrogenative Coupling of Isomeric o-Phenylenediamine Substrates

Benzimidazoles are common in nature, medicines, and materials. Numerous strategies for preparing 2-arylbenzimidazoles exist. In this work, 1,2-disubstituted benzimidazoles were prepared from various mono- and disubstituted ortho-phenylenediamines (OPD) by iron-catalyzed oxidative coupling. Specifically, O₂ and FeCl₃·6H₂O catalyzed the cross-dehydrogenative coupling and aromatization of diarylmethyl and dialkyl benzimidazole precursors. N,N'-Disubstituted-OPD substrates were significantly more reactive than their N,N-disubstituted isomers, which appears to be relative to their propensity for complexation and charge transfer with Fe³⁺. The reaction also converted N-monosubstituted OPD substrates to 2-substituted benzimidazoles; however, electron-poor substrates produce 1,2-disubstituted benzimidazoles by intermolecular imino-transfer. Kinetic, reagent, and spectroscopic (UV-vis and EPR) studies suggest a mechanism involving metal-substrate complexation, charge transfer, and aerobic turnover, involving high-valent Fe(IV) intermediates. Overall, comparative strategies for the relatively sustainable and efficient synthesis of 1,2-disubstituted benzimidazoles are demonstrated.

Which isomer is it, 1,2,5,6- or 1,4,5,8-tetrasubstituted cycloocta-1,3,5,7-tetraene? Synthesis of symmetrically tetrasubstituted cycloocta-1,3,5,7-tetraene derivatives

Ni(0) catalyzed cyclotetramerization [(2 + 2 + 2 + 2) cycloaddition] of propargyl alcohol gave D2 symmetric 1,4,5,8-tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)cycloocta-1,3,5,7-tetraene (1) as the major product contrary to what was reported earlier to be the corresponding C2v symmetric isomer, namely 1,2,5,6-tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)cycloocta-1,3,5,7-tetraene. The structure of 1 has been unambiguously assigned on the basis of single crystal XRD data which showed a very interesting "densely" intermolecularly hydrogen bonded solid state supramolecular structure. Tetrabromide (3) prepared from tetra-alcohol (1) reacted with a variety of nucleophiles, namely carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus nucleophiles, to give the corresponding derivatives in good yields. The tetraphosphonate derivative (9) underwent the Wittig-Horner reaction with aromatic aldehydes to give the corresponding tetra-styryl derivatives (10a-i). The reaction of tetrabromide with aniline, benzyl amine and R(+)-α-methylbenzyl amine gave the corresponding C2v symmetric pyrroline fused 1,2,5,6-tetra-substituted cycloocta-1,3,5,7-tetraene derivatives, while all the other derivatives belonged to D2 symmetric 1,4,5,8-tetra-substituted cycloocta-1,3,5,7-tetraene. Quantum mechanical calculations support the above conclusion based on the relative stabilities of the two isomers. The fusion of a 5-membered pyrroline ring with the tub-shaped cyclooctatetraene (COT) ring leads to flattening of the tub (shallow tub) making it easier for the ring inversion of COT through a planar intermediate to take place readily resulting in the formation of C2v symmetric pyrroline fused COT derivatives.

Ruthenium(ii)-catalysed selective C(sp2)-H bond benzoxylation of biologically appealing N-arylisoindolinones

Site- and regio-selective aromatic C-H bond benzoxylations were found to take place using biologically appealing N-arylisoindolinones under ruthenium(ii) catalysis in the presence of (hetero)aromatic carboxylic acid derivatives as coupling partners. Besides the presence of two potential C(sp²)-H sites available for functionalization in the substrates, exclusive ortho selectivity was achieved in the phenyl ring attached to the nitrogen atom. Notably, the reactions occurred in a selective manner as only mono-functionalized products were formed and they tolerated a large number of functional chemical groups. The ability of the cyclic tertiary amide within the isoindolinone skeleton to act as a weak directing group in order to accommodate six-membered ring ruthenacycle intermediates appears to be the key to reach such high levels of selectivity. In contrast, the more sterically demanding cyclic imides were unreactive under identical reaction conditions.

Metal-Free Air Oxidation in a Convenient Cascade Approach for the Access to Isoquinoline-1,3,4(2H)-triones

Herein we describe a very useful application of the readily available trifunctional aromatic ketone methyl-2-(2-bromoacetyl)benzoate in reactions with primary amines. An unexpected in situ air oxidation that follows a cascade process allowed the access to a series of isoquinoline-1,3,4(2H)-triones, a class of heterocyclic compounds of great interest containing an oxygen-rich heterocyclic scaffold. A modification of the original protocol, utilizing a Staudinger reaction in the presence of trimethylphosphine, was necessary for the synthesis of Caspase inhibitor trione with free NH group.