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Gomes I, Martins GF, Galamba N. Essential dynamics of ubiquitin in water and in a natural deep eutectic solvent. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024; 26:18244-18255. [PMID: 38904333 DOI: 10.1039/d4cp01773k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) comprised of osmolytes are of interest as potential biomolecular (cryo)protectants. However, the way these solvents influence the structure and dynamics of biomolecules as well as the role of water remains poorly understood. We carried out principal component analysis of various secondary structure elements of ubiquitin in water and a betaine : glycerol : water (1 : 2 : ζ; ζ = 0, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 45) NADES, from molecular dynamics trajectories, to gain insight into the protein dynamics as it undergoes a transition from a highly viscous anhydrous to an aqueous environment. A crossover of the protein's essential dynamics at ζ ∼ 5, induced by solvent-shell coupled fluctuations, is observed, indicating that ubiquitin might (re)fold in the NADES upon water addition at ζ > ∼5. Further, in contrast to water, the anhydrous NADES preserves ubiquitin's essential modes at high temperatures explaining the protein's seemingly enhanced thermal stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês Gomes
- BioISI - Biosystems and Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon, C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Gabriel F Martins
- BioISI - Biosystems and Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon, C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Nuno Galamba
- BioISI - Biosystems and Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon, C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal.
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2
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He W, Zhan T, Han H, Xu Y. Optimization of Deep Eutectic Solvents Enables Green and Efficient Cryopreservation. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024; 40:624-637. [PMID: 38114446 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c02808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Cryopreservation presents significant opportunities for biomedical applications including cell therapy, tissue engineering, and assisted reproduction. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), the most commonly used cryoprotectant (CPA), can be added to cells to prevent cryogenic damage. However, the toxicity of cryoprotectants restrains its further development in many areas with safety concerns such as clinical treatment. Therefore, the development of low-toxicity cryoprotectants is essential for medical research. This work reports deep eutectic solvents (DES) as naturally biocompatible osmoprotectants for green and efficient cryopreservation of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (HuMSC), which may be an ideal alternative to DMSO. The six types of DESs were explored for thermal properties, toxicity, and permeability in cells. Raman spectroscopy and viscosity studies showed that DES exhibited an improved hydrogen-bonding system as the temperature decreased. By optimizing the freezing process (cooling rate, incubation time, and loading procedure) of DES, the viability of mouse embryonic fibroblast cells (NIH-3T3) after thawing was significantly improved. The HuMSC were successfully preserved with no significant difference (p > 0.05) in cell viability (94.65%) after thawing compared with DMSO, which preserved the cell differentiation function and improved the cell proliferation rate. The mechanism of DES in cryopreservation was investigated, and it was found that DES could bind water molecules and effectively inhibit the growth of ice crystals during ice recrystallization, reducing mechanical damage to cells. This study highlights the excellent performance of DES as a low-toxicity CPA for stem cell preservation, which may be a significant advance for future clinical cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei He
- Institute of Biothermal Science & Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
- Shanghai Co-innovation Center for Energy Therapy of Tumors, Shanghai 200093, China
- Shanghai Technical Service Platform for Cryopreservation of Biological Resources, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Taijie Zhan
- Institute of Biothermal Science & Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
- Shanghai Co-innovation Center for Energy Therapy of Tumors, Shanghai 200093, China
- Shanghai Technical Service Platform for Cryopreservation of Biological Resources, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Hengxin Han
- Institute of Biothermal Science & Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
- Shanghai Co-innovation Center for Energy Therapy of Tumors, Shanghai 200093, China
- Shanghai Technical Service Platform for Cryopreservation of Biological Resources, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Yi Xu
- Institute of Biothermal Science & Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
- Shanghai Co-innovation Center for Energy Therapy of Tumors, Shanghai 200093, China
- Shanghai Technical Service Platform for Cryopreservation of Biological Resources, Shanghai 200093, China
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3
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Khan T, Das N, Negi KS, Bhowmik S, Sen P. Understanding the intricacy of protein in hydrated deep eutectic solvent: Solvation dynamics, conformational fluctuation dynamics, and stability. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:127100. [PMID: 37778586 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are potential biocatalytic media due to their easy preparation, fine-tuneability, biocompatibility, and most importantly, due to their ability to keep protein stable and active. However, there are many unanswered questions and gaps in our knowledge about how proteins behave in these alternate media. Herein, we investigated solvation dynamics, conformational fluctuation dynamics, and stability of human serum albumin (HSA) in 0.5 Acetamide/0.3 Urea/0.2 Sorbitol (0.5Ac/0.3Ur/0.2Sor) DES of varying concentrations to understand the intricacy of protein behaviour in DES. Our result revealed a gradual decrease in the side-chain flexibility and thermal stability of HSA beyond 30 % DES. On the other hand, the associated water dynamics around domain-I of HSA decelerate only marginally with increasing DES content, although viscosity rises considerably. We propose that even though macroscopic solvent properties are altered, a protein feels only an aqueous type of environment in the presence of DES. This is probably the first experimental study to delineate the role of the associated water structure of the enzyme for maintaining its stability inside DES. Although considerable effort is necessary to generalize such claims, it might serve as the basis for understanding why proteins remain stable and active in DES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanmoy Khan
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016, UP, India
| | - Nilimesh Das
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016, UP, India
| | - Kuldeep Singh Negi
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016, UP, India
| | - Suman Bhowmik
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016, UP, India
| | - Pratik Sen
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016, UP, India.
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4
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Gomes I, Galamba N. Protein stability in a natural deep eutectic solvent: Preferential hydration or solvent slaving? J Chem Phys 2023; 159:235101. [PMID: 38099555 DOI: 10.1063/5.0177095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) emerged as potential alternative solvent media in multiple areas, including biomolecular (cryo)preservation. Herein, we studied the stability of a small protein (ubiquitin) in water and a betaine-glycerol-water (B:G:W) (1:2:ζ; ζ = 0, 1, 2, 5, 10) DES, through molecular dynamics. An AMBER-based model that accurately describes the density and shear viscosity of the DES is proposed. We find that water molecules are largely trapped in the solvent, precluding the formation of a full hydration layer, seemingly opposite to osmolytes' preferential exclusion/preferential hydration mechanism. Although the protein is stable in the DES, structural fluctuations are largely suppressed and only recovered upon sufficient hydration. This is explained by a solvent-slaving mechanism where β-fluctuations are key, with the non-monotonic hydration of some amino acids with the water content providing an explanation to the non-monotonic folding of some proteins in aqueous DESs. A major thermal stability enhancement in the DES is also observed, caused by a similar slowdown of the backbone torsional dynamics. Our results support a kinetic stabilization of the protein in the DES, whereas a possible thermodynamic stabilization does not follow a preferential hydration or water entrapment mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês Gomes
- BioISI-Biosystems and Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon, C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Nuno Galamba
- BioISI-Biosystems and Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon, C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
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Barik S, Mahapatra A, Preeyanka N, Sarkar M. Assessing the impact of choline chloride and benzyltrimethylammonium chloride-based deep eutectic solvents on the structure and conformational dynamics of bovine serum albumin: a combined steady-state, time-resolved fluorescence and fluorescence correlation spectroscopic study. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:20093-20108. [PMID: 37462948 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp01380d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Although deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are regarded as useful substitutes for both ionic liquids and common organic solvents for storage and applications of biomolecules, it is still unclear whether all DESs or only specific types of DESs will be suitable for the said purpose. In view of this, the current study aims to report on the structure and conformational dynamics of BSA in the presence of two DESs, namely ethaline (choline chloride:ethylene glycol) and BMEG (benzyltrimethyl ammonium chloride:ethylene glycol), having the same hydrogen bond donor but with a distinct hydrogen bond acceptor, so that how small changes in one constituent of a DES alter the protein-DES interaction at the molecular level can be understood. The protein-DES interaction is investigated by exploiting both ensemble-averaged measurements like steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, and single-molecule sensitive techniques based on fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). Interestingly, the results obtained from these studies have demonstrated that while a very small quantity of BMEG completely unfolds the native structure of the protein, it remains in a partially unfolded state even at very high ethaline content. More interestingly, it has been found that at very high concentrations of BMEG, the unfolded protein undergoes enhanced protein-protein interaction resulting in the aggregation of BSA. All of the results obtained from these investigations have essentially suggested that both protein-DES interaction and interspecies interaction among the constituent of DESs play a crucial role in governing the overall stability and conformational dynamics of the protein in DESs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahadev Barik
- School of Chemical Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), An OCC of Homi Bhabha National Institute, Jatni, Khurda, Bhubaneswar 752050, Odisha, India.
- Centre of Interdisciplinary Science (CIS), NISER, Bhubaneswar, Jatni, Khurda, 752050, Odisha, India
| | - Amita Mahapatra
- School of Chemical Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), An OCC of Homi Bhabha National Institute, Jatni, Khurda, Bhubaneswar 752050, Odisha, India.
- Centre of Interdisciplinary Science (CIS), NISER, Bhubaneswar, Jatni, Khurda, 752050, Odisha, India
| | - Naupada Preeyanka
- School of Chemical Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), An OCC of Homi Bhabha National Institute, Jatni, Khurda, Bhubaneswar 752050, Odisha, India.
- Centre of Interdisciplinary Science (CIS), NISER, Bhubaneswar, Jatni, Khurda, 752050, Odisha, India
| | - Moloy Sarkar
- School of Chemical Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), An OCC of Homi Bhabha National Institute, Jatni, Khurda, Bhubaneswar 752050, Odisha, India.
- Centre of Interdisciplinary Science (CIS), NISER, Bhubaneswar, Jatni, Khurda, 752050, Odisha, India
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6
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Sanchez-Fernandez A, Basic M, Xiang J, Prevost S, Jackson AJ, Dicko C. Hydration in Deep Eutectic Solvents Induces Non-monotonic Changes in the Conformation and Stability of Proteins. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:23657-23667. [PMID: 36524921 PMCID: PMC9801427 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c11190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The preservation of labile biomolecules presents a major challenge in chemistry, and deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as suitable environments for this purpose. However, how the hydration of DESs impacts the behavior of proteins is often neglected. Here, we demonstrate that the amino acid environment and secondary structure of two proteins (bovine serum albumin and lysozyme) and an antibody (immunoglobulin G) in 1:2 choline chloride:glycerol and 1:2 choline chloride:urea follow a re-entrant behavior with solvent hydration. A dome-shaped transition is observed with a folded or partially folded structure at very low (<10 wt % H2O) and high (>40 wt % H2O) DES hydration, while protein unfolding increases between those regimes. Hydration also affects protein conformation and stability, as demonstrated for bovine serum albumin in hydrated 1:2 choline chloride:glycerol. In the neat DES, bovine serum albumin remains partially folded and unexpectedly undergoes unfolding and oligomerization at low water content. At intermediate hydration, the protein begins to refold and gradually retrieves the native monomer-dimer equilibrium. However, ca. 36 wt % H2O is required to recover the native folding fully. The half-denaturation temperature of the protein increases with decreasing hydration, but even the dilute DESs significantly enhance the thermal stability of bovine serum albumin. Also, protein unfolding can be reversed by rehydrating the sample to the high hydration regime, also recovering protein function. This correlation provides a new perspective to understanding protein behavior in hydrated DESs, where quantifying the DES hydration becomes imperative to identifying the folding and stability of proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Sanchez-Fernandez
- Centro
Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica
e Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS), Universidade
de Santiago de Compostela, Rúa de Jenaro de la Fuente, s/n, Santiago de Compostela 15705, Spain,Food
Technology, Engineering and Nutrition, Lund
University, Box 124, Lund 221 00, Sweden,
| | - Medina Basic
- Food
Technology, Engineering and Nutrition, Lund
University, Box 124, Lund 221 00, Sweden
| | - Jenny Xiang
- Food
Technology, Engineering and Nutrition, Lund
University, Box 124, Lund 221 00, Sweden
| | - Sylvain Prevost
- Institut
Laue-Langevin, DS / LSS,
71 Avenue des Martyrs, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Andrew J. Jackson
- European
Spallation Source, Box
176, Lund 221 00, Sweden,Department
of Physical Chemistry, Lund University, Box 124, Lund 221 00, Sweden
| | - Cedric Dicko
- Pure
and
Applied Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, Box
124, Lund SE-221 00, Sweden,Lund
Institute of Advanced Neutron and X-ray Science, SE-223 70 Lund, Sweden
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7
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Deep Eutectic Systems as Novel Vehicles for Assisting Drug Transdermal Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14112265. [PMID: 36365084 PMCID: PMC9692497 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14112265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, deep eutectic systems (DES) emerged as novel vehicles for facilitating the transdermal delivery of various drugs, including polysaccharides, proteins, insulin, vaccine, nanoparticles, and herb extracts. The objective of this study is to conduct a comprehensive review of the application of DES to transdermal drug delivery, based on previous work and the reported references. Following a brief overview, the roles of DES in TDDS, the modes of action, as well as the structure-activity relationship of DES are discussed. Particularly, the skin permeation of active macromolecules and rigid nanoparticles, which are the defining characteristics of DES, are extensively discussed. The objective is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current investigation and development of DES-based transdermal delivery systems, as well as a framework for the construction of novel DES-TDDS in the future.
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8
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Effect of pH on the conformational structure of cytochrome c and subsequent enzymatic cross-linking catalyzed by laccase. ELECTRON J BIOTECHN 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejbt.2022.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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9
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Liu Y, Wu Y, Liu J, Wang W, Yang Q, Yang G. Deep eutectic solvents: Recent advances in fabrication approaches and pharmaceutical applications. Int J Pharm 2022; 622:121811. [PMID: 35550409 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have received increasing attention in the past decade owing to their distinguished properties including biocompatibility, tunability, thermal and chemical stability. Particularly, DESs have joined forces in pharmaceutical industry, not only to efficiently separate actives from natural products, but also to dramatically increase solubility and permeability of drugs, both are critical for the drug absorption and efficacy. As a result, lately DESs have been extensively and practically adopted as versatile drug delivery systems for different routes such as nasal, transdermal and oral administration with enhanced bioavailability. This review summarizes the emerging progress of DESs by introducing applied fabrication approaches with advantages and limitations thereof, and by highlighting the pharmaceutical applications of DESs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiwen Liu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Yujing Wu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Jinming Liu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Wenxi Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Qingliang Yang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China; Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Particle Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China.
| | - Gensheng Yang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China; Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Particle Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China.
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Yadav N, Venkatesu P. Current understanding and insights towards protein stabilization and activation in deep eutectic solvents as sustainable solvent media. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:13474-13509. [PMID: 35640592 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp00084a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as a new class of green, designer and biocompatible solvents, an alternative to conventional organic solvents and ionic liquids (ILs) which are comparatively toxic and non-biodegradable. DESs are eutectic mixtures that are formed when a hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) is mixed with a hydrogen bond donor (HBD) at particular molar ratios by mechanical grinding or under mild heating conditions. Very recently, these solvents have been the center of attention for researchers in biotechnology, biomedicine and various scientific applications. These environmentally benign solvents have a close analogy with ILs; however, they offer certain unique merits over traditional ILs. DESs display remarkable properties such as easy preparation, tunable composition, biodegradability, recyclability, inherently low toxicity, sustainability and biocompatibility; these special features validate DESs as new potential solvents/co-solvents for biomolecules. Mechanistically, the biocompatibility and protein friendly nature of DESs depend on various factors, which include the composition of the DES, viscosity and hydration level. Therefore, it becomes an essential task to bring together all the studies related to protein behaviour in DESs to unlock their biomolecular proficiency. This review specifically highlights recent insights into the biomacromolecular functionality in DESs, including outlines of the solubilization and stabilization of proteins, long term protein packaging, different extraction methods and enzyme activation in the presence of DESs. A literature survey reveals that DESs act as green media in which the protein structure and activity are retained. In some cases, proteins refolded and enzymatic activity was enhanced several fold in the presence of DESs. Furthermore, we have reviewed the possible mechanistic behaviour behind protein stabilization, refolding and activation in DESs. Overall, the main objective of this review is to explicate the advantages of the introduction of DESs for biomolecules and to demonstrate the versatility of these eco-friendly solvents for future bio-based applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niketa Yadav
- Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007, India.
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11
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Kistwal T, Mukhopadhyay A, Dasgupta S, Sharma KP, Datta A. Ultraslow Biological Water-Like Dynamics in Waterless Liquid Protein. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:4389-4393. [PMID: 35548934 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c00702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and time-dependent fluorescence Stokes shift have been employed to elucidate dynamics in different time scales, ranging from picoseconds to nanoseconds, for human serum albumin, in its native and cationized forms as well as in the self-assembled complex of the cationized protein with the polymer surfactant (PS) glycolic acid ethoxylate lauryl ether. The effect of crowding in this complex, especially in the waterless condition, is of prime importance in this context. Excellent correlation of the dynamics with the structures, obtained by circular dichroism and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, has been observed. Slow solvation, associated classically with biological water, has been observed in these systems, even in the waterless condition. This apparently intriguing observation has been rationalized by the relaxation of segments of the protein and the PS in the microenvironment of the fluorescent probe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanuja Kistwal
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Anasua Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Souradip Dasgupta
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Kamendra P Sharma
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Anindya Datta
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
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