Electrolytes Change the Interfacial Water Structure but Not the Vibrational Dynamics

Temperature-dependent vibrational energy relaxation of hydrogen-bonded and free OD groups at the air-water interface

Water interfaces play a crucial role in regulating interactions and energy flow. Vibrational sum-frequency generation (vSFG) spectroscopy provides structural and dynamic information on water molecules at interfaces. It has revealed, for instance, the presence of the hydrogen-bonded and free OH groups at the air-water interface. Here, using temperature-dependent, time-resolved vSFG, we focus on the vibrational energy relaxation dynamics of interfacial heavy water (D2O). We reveal that while the relaxation timescale for hydrogen-bonded OD stretch modes is temperature-independent, the lifetime of the free OD stretch mode decreases with increasing temperature. Our data, supported by simulations, suggest that both intramolecular energy transfer and rotational reorientation mechanisms jointly contribute to the energy relaxation process of the free OD, with temperature influencing these mechanisms differently.

The Role of Sum-Frequency Generation Spectroscopy in Understanding On-Surface Reactions and Dynamics in Atmospheric Model-Systems

Surfaces, both water/air and solid/water, play an important role in mediating a multitude of processes central to atmospheric chemistry, particularly in the aerosol phase. However, the study of both static and dynamic properties of surfaces is highly challenging from an experimental standpoint, leading to a lack of molecular level information about the processes that take place at these systems and how they differ from bulk. One of the few techniques that has been able to capture ultrafast surface phenomena is time-resolved sum-frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy. Since it is both surface-specific and chemically sensitive, the extension of this spectroscopic technique to the time domain makes it possible to study dynamic processes on the femtosecond time scale. In this Perspective, we will explore recent advances made in the field both in terms of studying energy dissipation as well as chemical reactions and the role the surface geometry plays in these processes.

The enhanced dissociation and associated surface structure of the anesthetic propofol at the water interface: vibrational sum frequency generation study

Propofol, the most administered drug for general anesthesia, affects the acid-base equilibrium at the interfacial region of arterial blood. Hence, the structure of propofol at the water interface under different pH conditions has been measured using the surface-selective vibrational sum frequency generation (VSFG) technique to understand the hydration as well as the dissociation of propofol at the water interface. Propofol remains in its neutral form at pH ≤ 5.8 in which the OH group of propofol forms a hydrogen bond with interfacial water molecules, where a few interfacial water molecules also interact with the π electron density of propofol. By contrast, propofol prefers to be in the deprotonated state at pH ≥ 7, due to which the surface of water becomes negatively charged and hence the interfacial water becomes oriented and the intensity of the OH stretch of water is enhanced. The pK_a of propofol at the water interface is ∼three units lower than in the bulk medium indicating that the dissociation of propofol is notably enhanced at the water interface. These VSFG studies suggest that, unlike the bulk, propofol prefers to be in the charged state at the water interface under physiological conditions, which may be important in understanding its diffusion and acid-base equilibrium in the interfacial arterial blood region.

Kosmotropic Electrolyte (Na2CO3, NaF) Perturbs the Air/Water Interface through Anion Hydration Shell without Forming a Well-Defined Electric Double Layer

The ion-driven electric double layer (EDL) and the structural transformation of interfacial water are implicated in unusual reaction kinetics at the air/water interface. By combining heterodyne-detected vibrational sum frequency generation (HD-VSFG) with differential spectroscopy involving simultaneous curve fitting (DS-SCF) analysis, we retrieve electrolyte (Na₂CO₃ and NaF)-correlated OH-stretch spectra of water at the air/water interface. Vibrational mapping of the perturbed interfacial water with the hydration shell spectra (obtained by DS-SCF analysis of Raman spectra) of the corresponding anion discloses that the kosmotropic electrolytes do not form well-defined EDL at the air/water interface. Instead, the interfacial water forms a stronger hydrogen-bond with the surface-expelled anions (CO₃^2- and F^-) and becomes more inhomogeneous than the pristine air/water interface. Together, the results reveal that the perturbation of interfacial water by the kosmotropic electrolyte is a "local phenomenon" confined within the hydration shell of the surface-expelled anion.

Assessing the Impact of Solvent Selection on Vibrational Sum-Frequency Scattering Spectroscopy Experiments

The development of vibrational sum-frequency scattering (S-VSF) spectroscopy has opened the door to directly probing nanoparticle surfaces with an interfacial and chemical specificity that was previously reserved for planar interfacial systems. Despite its potential, challenges remain in the application of S-VSF spectroscopy beyond simplified chemical systems. One such challenge includes infrared absorption by an absorptive continuous phase, which will alter the spectral lineshapes within S-VSF spectra. In this study, we investigate how solvent vibrational modes manifest in S-VSF spectra of surfactant stabilized nanoemulsions and demonstrate how corrections for infrared absorption can recover the spectral features of interfacial solvent molecules. We also investigate infrared absorption for systems with the absorptive phase dispersed in a nonabsorptive continuous phase to show that infrared absorption, while reduced, will still impact the S-VSF spectra. These studies are then used to provide practical recommendations for anyone wishing to use S-VSF to study nanoparticle surfaces where absorptive solvents are present.

"Breaking" and "Making" of Water Structure at the Air/Water-Electrolyte (NaXO3; X = Cl, Br, I) Interface

The prevalence of ions at the aqueous interface has been widely recognized, but their effect on the structure of interfacial water (e.g., hydrogen (H)-bonding) remains enigmatic. Using heterodyne-detected vibrational sum frequency generation (HD-VSFG) and Raman difference spectroscopy with simultaneous curve fitting (DS-SCF) analysis, we show that the ion-induced perturbations of H-bonding at the air/water interface and in the bulk water are strongly correlated. Specifically, the structure-breaking anions such as ClO₃^- decrease the average H-bonding of water at the air/water interface, as it does to the water in its hydration shell in the bulk. The structure-making anion of the same series (IO₃^-) does exactly the reverse. None of the electrolytes (NaXO₃; X = Cl, Br, I) form well-defined electric double layers that significantly increase or reverse the hydrogen-down (H-down) orientation of water at the air/water interface. These results provide a unified picture of specific anion effect at the air/water interface and in the bulk water.

Interfacial Vibrational Dynamics of Ice Ih and Liquid Water

Insights into energy flow dynamics at ice surfaces are essential for understanding chemical dynamics relevant to atmospheric and geographical sciences. Here, employing ultrafast surface-specific spectroscopy, we report the interfacial vibrational dynamics of ice I_h. A comparison to liquid water surfaces reveals accelerated vibrational energy relaxation and dissipation at the ice surface for hydrogen-bonded OH groups. In contrast, free-OH groups sticking into the vapor phase exhibit substantially slower vibrational dynamics on ice. The acceleration and deceleration of vibrational dynamics of these different OH groups at the ice surface are attributed to enhanced intermolecular coupling and reduced rotational mobility, respectively. Our results highlight the unique properties of free-OH groups on ice, putatively linked to the high catalytic activities of ice surfaces.

Orientation independent vibrational dynamics of lipid-bound interfacial water

Zwitterionic phospholipids are one of the main constituents of biological membranes. The electric field associated with the two opposite headgroup charges aligns water molecules in the headgroup region. Here, we study the role of water alignment on the sub-picosecond vibrational dynamics of lipid-bound water. To this end, we compare the dynamics of oppositely oriented water associated with, respectively, a phosphocholine (PC) headgroup and an inverse-phosphocholine with non-ethylated phosphate groups (CP). We find that the dynamics are independent of the water orientation, implying that the vibrational dynamics report on the local properties of the water molecules.