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Williamson G, Bizior A, Harris T, Pritchard L, Hoskisson P, Javelle A. Biological ammonium transporters from the Amt/Mep/Rh superfamily: mechanism, energetics, and technical limitations. Biosci Rep 2024; 44:BSR20211209. [PMID: 38131184 PMCID: PMC10794816 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20211209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The exchange of ammonium across cellular membranes is a fundamental process in all domains of life and is facilitated by the ubiquitous Amt/Mep/Rh transporter superfamily. Remarkably, despite a high structural conservation in all domains of life, these proteins have gained various biological functions during evolution. It is tempting to hypothesise that the physiological functions gained by these proteins may be explained at least in part by differences in the energetics of their translocation mechanisms. Therefore, in this review, we will explore our current knowledge of energetics of the Amt/Mep/Rh family, discuss variations in observations between different organisms, and highlight some technical drawbacks which have hampered effects at mechanistic characterisation. Through the review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of current understanding of the mechanism of transport of this unique and extraordinary Amt/Mep/Rh superfamily of ammonium transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon Williamson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, U.K
| | - Adriana Bizior
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, U.K
| | - Thomas Harris
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, U.K
| | - Leighton Pritchard
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, U.K
| | - Paul A. Hoskisson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, U.K
| | - Arnaud Javelle
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, U.K
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2
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Golub M, Pieper J. Recent Progress in Solution Structure Studies of Photosynthetic Proteins Using Small-Angle Scattering Methods. Molecules 2023; 28:7414. [PMID: 37959833 PMCID: PMC10650700 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28217414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Utilized for gaining structural insights, small-angle neutron and X-ray scattering techniques (SANS and SAXS, respectively) enable an examination of biomolecules, including photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes, in solution at physiological temperatures. These methods can be seen as instrumental bridges between the high-resolution structural information achieved by crystallography or cryo-electron microscopy and functional explorations conducted in a solution state. The review starts with a comprehensive overview about the fundamental principles and applications of SANS and SAXS, with a particular focus on the recent advancements permitting to enhance the efficiency of these techniques in photosynthesis research. Among the recent developments discussed are: (i) the advent of novel modeling tools whereby a direct connection between SANS and SAXS data and high-resolution structures is created; (ii) the employment of selective deuteration, which is utilized to enhance spatial selectivity and contrast matching; (iii) the potential symbioses with molecular dynamics simulations; and (iv) the amalgamations with functional studies that are conducted to unearth structure-function relationships. Finally, reference is made to time-resolved SANS/SAXS experiments, which enable the monitoring of large-scale structural transformations of proteins in a real-time framework.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jörg Pieper
- Institute of Physics, University of Tartu, Wilhelm Ostwald Str. 1, 50411 Tartu, Estonia;
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3
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Bizior A, Williamson G, Harris T, Hoskisson PA, Javelle A. Prokaryotic ammonium transporters: what has three decades of research revealed? MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2023; 169:001360. [PMID: 37450375 PMCID: PMC10433425 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
The exchange of ammonium across cellular membranes is a fundamental process in all domains of life. In plants, bacteria and fungi, ammonium represents a vital source of nitrogen, which is scavenged from the external environment. In contrast, in animal cells ammonium is a cytotoxic metabolic waste product and must be excreted to prevent cell death. Transport of ammonium is facilitated by the ubiquitous Amt/Mep/Rh transporter superfamily. In addition to their function as transporters, Amt/Mep/Rh proteins play roles in a diverse array of biological processes and human physiopathology. Despite this clear physiological importance and medical relevance, the molecular mechanism of Amt/Mep/Rh proteins has remained elusive. Crystal structures of bacterial Amt/Rh proteins suggest electroneutral transport, whilst functional evidence supports an electrogenic mechanism. Here, focusing on bacterial members of the family, we summarize the structure of Amt/Rh proteins and what three decades of research tells us concerning the general mechanisms of ammonium translocation, in particular the possibility that the transport mechanism might differ in various members of the Amt/Mep/Rh superfamily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Bizior
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - Gordon Williamson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - Thomas Harris
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - Paul A. Hoskisson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - Arnaud Javelle
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
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4
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Krueger S. Small-angle neutron scattering contrast variation studies of biological complexes: Challenges and triumphs. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2022; 74:102375. [PMID: 35490650 PMCID: PMC10988784 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2022.102375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) has been a beneficial tool for studying the structure of biological macromolecules in solution for several decades. Continued improvements in sample preparation techniques, including deuterium labeling, neutron instrumentation and complementary techniques such as small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS), cryo-EM, NMR and x-ray crystallography, along with the availability of more powerful structure prediction algorithms and computational resources has made SANS more important than ever as a means to obtain unique information on the structure of biological complexes in solution. In particular, the contrast variation (CV) technique, which requires a large commitment in both sample preparation and measurement time, has become more practical with the advent of these improved resources. Here, challenges and recent triumphs as well as future prospects are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Krueger
- NIST Center for Neutron Research, NIST, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA.
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5
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Coexistence of Ammonium Transporter and Channel Mechanisms in Amt-Mep-Rh Twin-His Variants Impairs the Filamentation Signaling Capacity of Fungal Mep2 Transceptors. mBio 2022; 13:e0291321. [PMID: 35196127 PMCID: PMC9040831 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02913-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Ammonium translocation through biological membranes, by the ubiquitous Amt-Mep-Rh family of transporters, plays a key role in all domains of life. Two highly conserved histidine residues protrude into the lumen of the pore of these transporters, forming the family’s characteristic Twin-His motif. It has been hypothesized that the motif is essential to confer the selectivity of the transport mechanism. Here, using a combination of in vitro electrophysiology on Escherichia coli AmtB, in silico molecular dynamics simulations, and in vivo yeast functional complementation assays, we demonstrate that variations in the Twin-His motif trigger a mechanistic switch between a specific transporter, depending on ammonium deprotonation, to an unspecific ion channel activity. We therefore propose that there is no selective filter that governs specificity in Amt-Mep-Rh transporters, but the inherent mechanism of translocation, dependent on the fragmentation of the substrate, ensures the high specificity of the translocation. We show that coexistence of both mechanisms in single Twin-His variants of yeast Mep2 transceptors disrupts the signaling function and so impairs fungal filamentation. These data support a signaling process driven by the transport mechanism of the fungal Mep2 transceptors.
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6
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Predicting solution scattering patterns with explicit-solvent molecular simulations. Methods Enzymol 2022; 677:433-456. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2022.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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7
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Anandan A, Dunstan NW, Ryan TM, Mertens HDT, Lim KYL, Evans GL, Kahler CM, Vrielink A. Conformational flexibility of EptA driven by an interdomain helix provides insights for enzyme-substrate recognition. IUCRJ 2021; 8:732-746. [PMID: 34584735 PMCID: PMC8420757 DOI: 10.1107/s2052252521005613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Many pathogenic gram-negative bacteria have developed mechanisms to increase resistance to cationic antimicrobial peptides by modifying the lipid A moiety. One modification is the addition of phospho-ethano-lamine to lipid A by the enzyme phospho-ethano-lamine transferase (EptA). Previously we reported the structure of EptA from Neisseria, revealing a two-domain architecture consisting of a periplasmic facing soluble domain and a transmembrane domain, linked together by a bridging helix. Here, the conformational flexibility of EptA in different detergent environments is probed by solution scattering and intrinsic fluorescence-quenching studies. The solution scattering studies reveal the enzyme in a more compact state with the two domains positioned close together in an n-do-decyl-β-d-maltoside micelle environment and an open extended structure in an n-do-decyl-phospho-choline micelle environment. Intrinsic fluorescence quenching studies localize the domain movements to the bridging helix. These results provide important insights into substrate binding and the molecular mechanism of endotoxin modification by EptA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anandhi Anandan
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Nicholas W. Dunstan
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Timothy M. Ryan
- Australian Synchrotron, 800 Blackburn Road, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Haydyn D. T. Mertens
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Hamburg Unit, DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Katherine Y. L. Lim
- The Marshall Centre for Infectious Diseases Research and Training, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Genevieve L. Evans
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Charlene M. Kahler
- The Marshall Centre for Infectious Diseases Research and Training, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Alice Vrielink
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth 6009, Australia
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8
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Kursula P. Small-angle X-ray scattering for the proteomics community: current overview and future potential. Expert Rev Proteomics 2021; 18:415-422. [PMID: 34210208 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2021.1951242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Proteins are biological nanoparticles. For structural proteomics and hybrid structural biology, complementary methods are required that allow both high throughput and accurate automated data analysis. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) is a method for observing the size and shape of particles, such as proteins and complexes, in solution. SAXS data can be used to model both the structure, oligomeric state, conformational changes, and flexibility of biomolecular samples.Areas covered: The key principles of SAXS, its sample requirements, and its current and future applications for structural proteomics are briefly reviewed. Recent technical developments in SAXS experiments are discussed, and future potential of the method in structural proteomics is evaluated.Expert opinion: SAXS is a method suitable for several aspects of integrative structural proteomics, with current technical developments allowing for higher throughput and time-resolved studies, as well as the analysis of complex samples, such as membrane proteins. Increasing automation and streamlined data analysis are expected to equip SAXS for structure-based screening workflows. Originally, structural genomics had a heavy focus on folded, crystallizable proteins and complexes - SAXS is a method allowing an expansion of this focus to flexible and disordered systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petri Kursula
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Biocenter Oulu & Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
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Matsuo T. Viewing SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid Protein in Terms of Molecular Flexibility. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:454. [PMID: 34064163 PMCID: PMC8224284 DOI: 10.3390/biology10060454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The latest coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia leading to the pandemic, contains 29 proteins. Among them, nucleocapsid protein (NCoV2) is one of the abundant proteins and shows multiple functions including packaging the RNA genome during the infection cycle. It has also emerged as a potential drug target. In this review, the current status of the research of NCoV2 is described in terms of molecular structure and dynamics. NCoV2 consists of two domains, i.e., the N-terminal domain (NTD) and the C-terminal domain (CTD) with a disordered region between them. Recent simulation studies have identified several potential drugs that can bind to NTD or CTD with high affinity. Moreover, it was shown that the degree of flexibility in the disordered region has a large effect on drug binding rate, suggesting the importance of molecular flexibility for the NCoV2 function. Molecular flexibility has also been shown to be integral to the formation of droplets, where NCoV2, RNA and/or other viral proteins gather through liquid-liquid phase separation and considered important for viral replication. Finally, as one of the future research directions, a strategy for obtaining the structural and dynamical information on the proteins contained in droplets is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuhito Matsuo
- Institute for Quantum Life Science, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1106, Japan;
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire de Physique (LiPhy), Grenoble-Alpes University, 140 Rue de la Physique, 38402 Saint Martin d’Hères, France
- Institut Laue-Langevin, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 20156, CEDEX 9, 38042 Grenoble, France
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10
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Seffernick JT, Lindert S. Hybrid methods for combined experimental and computational determination of protein structure. J Chem Phys 2020; 153:240901. [PMID: 33380110 PMCID: PMC7773420 DOI: 10.1063/5.0026025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Knowledge of protein structure is paramount to the understanding of biological function, developing new therapeutics, and making detailed mechanistic hypotheses. Therefore, methods to accurately elucidate three-dimensional structures of proteins are in high demand. While there are a few experimental techniques that can routinely provide high-resolution structures, such as x-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and cryo-EM, which have been developed to determine the structures of proteins, these techniques each have shortcomings and thus cannot be used in all cases. However, additionally, a large number of experimental techniques that provide some structural information, but not enough to assign atomic positions with high certainty have been developed. These methods offer sparse experimental data, which can also be noisy and inaccurate in some instances. In cases where it is not possible to determine the structure of a protein experimentally, computational structure prediction methods can be used as an alternative. Although computational methods can be performed without any experimental data in a large number of studies, inclusion of sparse experimental data into these prediction methods has yielded significant improvement. In this Perspective, we cover many of the successes of integrative modeling, computational modeling with experimental data, specifically for protein folding, protein-protein docking, and molecular dynamics simulations. We describe methods that incorporate sparse data from cryo-EM, NMR, mass spectrometry, electron paramagnetic resonance, small-angle x-ray scattering, Förster resonance energy transfer, and genetic sequence covariation. Finally, we highlight some of the major challenges in the field as well as possible future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin T. Seffernick
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Steffen Lindert
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
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11
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Williamson G, Tamburrino G, Bizior A, Boeckstaens M, Dias Mirandela G, Bage MG, Pisliakov A, Ives CM, Terras E, Hoskisson PA, Marini AM, Zachariae U, Javelle A. A two-lane mechanism for selective biological ammonium transport. eLife 2020; 9:57183. [PMID: 32662768 PMCID: PMC7447429 DOI: 10.7554/elife.57183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The transport of charged molecules across biological membranes faces the dual problem of accommodating charges in a highly hydrophobic environment while maintaining selective substrate translocation. This has been the subject of a particular controversy for the exchange of ammonium across cellular membranes, an essential process in all domains of life. Ammonium transport is mediated by the ubiquitous Amt/Mep/Rh transporters that includes the human Rhesus factors. Here, using a combination of electrophysiology, yeast functional complementation and extended molecular dynamics simulations, we reveal a unique two-lane pathway for electrogenic NH4+ transport in two archetypal members of the family, the transporters AmtB from Escherichia coli and Rh50 from Nitrosomonas europaea. The pathway underpins a mechanism by which charged H+ and neutral NH3 are carried separately across the membrane after NH4+ deprotonation. This mechanism defines a new principle of achieving transport selectivity against competing ions in a biological transport process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon Williamson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Giulia Tamburrino
- Computational Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom.,Physics, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Adriana Bizior
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Mélanie Boeckstaens
- Biology of Membrane Transport Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Gaëtan Dias Mirandela
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Marcus G Bage
- Computational Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom.,Physics, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Andrei Pisliakov
- Computational Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom.,Physics, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Callum M Ives
- Computational Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Eilidh Terras
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Paul A Hoskisson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Maria Marini
- Biology of Membrane Transport Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Ulrich Zachariae
- Computational Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom.,Physics, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Arnaud Javelle
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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12
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Chen PC, Shevchuk R, Strnad FM, Lorenz C, Karge L, Gilles R, Stadler AM, Hennig J, Hub JS. Combined Small-Angle X-ray and Neutron Scattering Restraints in Molecular Dynamics Simulations. J Chem Theory Comput 2019; 15:4687-4698. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.9b00292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Po-chia Chen
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, EMBL Heidelberg, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Roman Shevchuk
- Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Felix M. Strnad
- Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Charlotte Lorenz
- Jülich Centre for Neutron Science (JCNS-1) and Institute for Complex Systems ICS (ICS-1), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Lukas Karge
- Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Zentrum, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Ralph Gilles
- Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Zentrum, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Andreas M. Stadler
- Jülich Centre for Neutron Science (JCNS-1) and Institute for Complex Systems ICS (ICS-1), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Janosch Hennig
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, EMBL Heidelberg, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jochen S. Hub
- Theoretical Physics and Center for Biophysics, Saarland University, Campus E2 6, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
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