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Nemakhavhani L, Abrahamse H, Kumar SSD. A review on dendrimer-based nanoconjugates and their intracellular trafficking in cancer photodynamic therapy. ARTIFICIAL CELLS, NANOMEDICINE, AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 52:384-398. [PMID: 39101753 DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2024.2368033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
Nanotechnology-based cancer treatment has received considerable attention, and these treatments generally use drug-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) to target and destroy cancer cells. Nanotechnology combined with photodynamic therapy (PDT) has demonstrated positive outcomes in cancer therapy. Combining nanotechnology and PDT is effective in targeting metastatic cancer cells. Nanotechnology can also increase the effectiveness of PDT by targeting cells at a molecular level. Dendrimer-based nanoconjugates (DBNs) are highly stable and biocompatible, making them suitable for drug delivery applications. Moreover, the hyperbranched structures in DBNs have the capacity to load hydrophobic compounds, such as photosensitizers (PSs) and chemotherapy drugs, and deliver them efficiently to tumour cells. This review primarily focuses on DBNs and their potential applications in cancer treatment. We discuss the chemical design, mechanism of action, and targeting efficiency of DBNs in tumour metastasis, intracellular trafficking in cancer treatment, and DBNs' biocompatibility, biodegradability and clearance properties. Overall, this study will provide the most recent insights into the application of DBNs and PDT in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lufuno Nemakhavhani
- Laser Research Centre, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Heidi Abrahamse
- Laser Research Centre, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
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2
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Fateh ST, Aghaii AH, Aminzade Z, Shahriari E, Roohpour N, Koosha F, Dezfuli AS. Inorganic nanoparticle-cored dendrimers for biomedical applications: A review. Heliyon 2024; 10:e29726. [PMID: 38694058 PMCID: PMC11061704 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Hybrid nanostructures exhibit a synergistic combination of features derived from their individual components, showcasing novel characteristics resulting from their distinctive structure and chemical/physical properties. Surface modifiers play a pivotal role in shaping INPs' primary attributes, influencing their physicochemical properties, stability, and functional applications. Among these modifiers, dendrimers have gained attention as highly effective multifunctional agents for INPs, owing to their unique structural qualities, dendritic effects, and physicochemical properties. Dendrimers can be seamlessly integrated with diverse inorganic nanostructures, including metal NPs, carbon nanostructures, silica NPs, and QDs. Two viable approaches to achieving this integration involve either growing or grafting dendrimers, resulting in inorganic nanostructure-cored dendrimers. The initial step involves functionalizing the nanostructures' surface, followed by the generation of dendrimers through stepwise growth or attachment of pre-synthesized dendrimer branches. This hybridization imparts superior qualities to the resulting structure, including biocompatibility, solubility, high cargo loading capacity, and substantial functionalization potential. Combining the unique properties of dendrimers with those of the inorganic nanostructure cores creates a multifunctional system suitable for diverse applications such as theranostics, bio-sensing, component isolation, chemotherapy, and cargo-carrying applications. This review summarizes the recent developments, with a specific focus on the last five years, within the realm of dendrimers. It delves into their role as modifiers of INPs and explores the potential applications of INP-cored dendrimers in the biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sepand Tehrani Fateh
- School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Ronash Technology Pars Company(AMINBIC), Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Hossein Aghaii
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
- Ronash Technology Pars Company(AMINBIC), Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Aminzade
- School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Elahe Shahriari
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Fereshteh Koosha
- Department of Radiology Technology, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Lee H, Kim J, Hwang M, Kim J. Galvanic Bipolar Electrode Arrays with Self-Driven Optical Readouts. ACS Sens 2023; 8:4374-4383. [PMID: 37857596 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c01807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we report a bipolar electrode (BPE) array system with self-driven optical readouts of the faradic current flowing through the BPEs. The BPE array system is based on the spontaneous redox reactions that are respectively occurring at opposite poles of the BPEs with appropriate electrocatalysts on the poles; this system is analogous to one consisting of galvanic electrochemical cells. The galvanic BPE array system operates in a self-powered mode that requires there to be neither a direct electrical connection nor external electrical polarization to each BPE. Importantly, the appropriate electrocatalysts on the poles play a critical role in the galvanic BPE array system to induce the spontaneous redox reactions occurring at the poles of BPEs. Moreover, the galvanic BPE array system provides self-driven optical readouts, including fluorometric and colorimetric ones, to report the faradaic current resulting from the spontaneous redox reactions on the BPE poles. Based on the unique benefits that the galvanic BPE array system has over conventional BPEs, we demonstrated the promising potential of galvanic BPE arrays for the simple yet rapid and quantitative screening of electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction as well as sensitive sensing of H2O2 in parallel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyein Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiwoo Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Misol Hwang
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Joohoon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
- KHU-KIST Department of Converging Science and Technology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
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Chen T, Qiu M, Peng Y, Yi C, Xu Z. Colloidal Polymer-Templated Formation of Inorganic Nanocrystals and their Emerging Applications. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2303282. [PMID: 37409416 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202303282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Inorganic nanocrystals possess unique physicochemical properties compared to their bulk counterparts. Stabilizing agents are commonly used for the preparation of inorganic nanocrystals with controllable properties. Particularly, colloidal polymers have emerged as general and robust templates for in situ formation and confinement of inorganic nanocrystals. In addition to templating and stabilizing inorganic nanocrystals, colloidal polymers can tailor their physicochemical properties such as size, shape, structure, composition, surface chemistry, and so on. By incorporating functional groups into colloidal polymers, desired functions can be integrated with inorganic nanocrystals, advancing their potential applications. Here, recent advances in the colloidal polymer-templated formation of inorganic nanocrystals are reviewed. Seven types of colloidal polymers, including dendrimer, polymer micelle, stare-like block polymer, bottlebrush polymer, spherical polyelectrolyte brush, microgel, and single-chain nanoparticle, have been extensively applied for the synthesis of inorganic nanocrystals. Different strategies for the development of these colloidal polymer-templated inorganic nanocrystals are summarized. Then, their emerging applications in the fields of catalysis, biomedicine, solar cells, sensing, light-emitting diodes, and lithium-ion batteries are highlighted. Last, the remaining issues and future directions are discussed. This review will stimulate the development and application of colloidal polymer-templated inorganic nanocrystals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyou Chen
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Green Preparation and Application of Functional Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China
| | - Meishuang Qiu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Green Preparation and Application of Functional Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China
| | - Yan Peng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Green Preparation and Application of Functional Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China
| | - Changfeng Yi
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Green Preparation and Application of Functional Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China
| | - Zushun Xu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Green Preparation and Application of Functional Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China
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Fernandes T, Daniel-da-Silva AL, Trindade T. Metal-dendrimer hybrid nanomaterials for sensing applications. Coord Chem Rev 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Lee H, Shin W, Kim HJ, Kim J. Turn-On Fluorescence Sensing of Oxygen with Dendrimer-Encapsulated Platinum Nanoparticles as Tunable Oxidase Mimics for Spatially Resolved Measurement of Oxygen Gradient in a Human Gut-on-a-Chip. Anal Chem 2021; 93:16123-16132. [PMID: 34807579 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Turn-on type fluorescence sensing of O2 is considered a promising approach to developing ways to measure O2 in microenvironments with spatially distributed O2 levels. As a class of nanomaterials with a high degree of control over composition and structure, dendrimer-encapsulated nanoparticles (DENs) are promising candidates to mimic biological enzymes. Here, we report a strategy to monitor spatially distributed O2 across a three-dimensional (3D) human intestinal epithelial layer in a gut-on-a-chip in a turn-on fluorescence sensing manner. The strategy is based on the oxidase-mimetic activity of Pt DENs for catalytic oxidation of nonfluorescent Amplex Red to highly fluorescent resorufin in the presence of O2. We synthesized Pt DENs using two different types of dendrimers (i.e., amine-terminated or hydroxyl-terminated generation 6 polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers) with six different Pt2+/dendrimer ratios (i.e., 55, 200, 220, 550, 880, and 1320). After clarifying the intrinsic oxidase-mimetic activity of Pt DENs, we determined tunable oxidase-mimetic activity of Pt DENs, especially with fine-tuning the ratios of the Pt precursor ions and dendrimers. Particularly, the optimal Pt DENs having a Pt2+/dendrimer ratio of 1320 exhibited an ∼117-fold increase in the oxidase-mimetic activity for catalyzing the aerobic oxidation of Amplex Red to resorufin compared to one having a Pt2+/dendrimer ratio of 200. This study exemplified a simple yet effective approach for spatially resolved imaging of O2 using metal nanoparticle-based oxidase mimics in microphysiological environments like a human gut-on-a-chip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyein Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Woojung Shin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Hyun Jung Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Joohoon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.,KHU-KIST Department of Converging Science and Technology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
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Kim J, Kim J. Graphene oxide hybrid with amine‐terminated poly(amidoamine) dendrimers encapsulating Pt nanoparticles for electrochemical oxygen reduction reaction. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/bkcs.12436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiwoong Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences Kyung Hee University Seoul South Korea
| | - Joohoon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences Kyung Hee University Seoul South Korea
- KHU‐KIST Department of Converging Science and Technology Kyung Hee University Seoul South Korea
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Devadas B, Periasamy AP, Bouzek K. A review on poly(amidoamine) dendrimer encapsulated nanoparticles synthesis and usage in energy conversion and storage applications. Coord Chem Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2021.214062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Kim J, Kim J. Electrochemically induced deposition of hydroxyl‐terminated poly(amidoamine) dendrimers encapsulating Pt nanoparticles on indium tin oxide for enhanced electrochemiluminescence. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/bkcs.12398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiwoo Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences Kyung Hee University Seoul South Korea
| | - Joohoon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences Kyung Hee University Seoul South Korea
- KHU‐KIST Department of Converging Science and Technology Kyung Hee University Seoul South Korea
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10
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Ju Y, Ro HJ, Yi YS, Cho T, Kim SI, Yoon CW, Jun S, Kim J. Three-Dimensional TEM Study of Dendrimer-Encapsulated Pt Nanoparticles for Visualizing Structural Characteristics of the Whole Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Nanostructure. Anal Chem 2021; 93:2871-2878. [PMID: 33455155 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c04264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report three-dimensional (3-D) visualization of dendrimer-encapsulated Pt nanoparticles (Pt DENs) by using 3-D electron tomography to reveal intricate structural characteristics of their whole organic-inorganic hybrid nanostructure. We reconstructed the 3-D spatial volume of Pt DENs by back-projecting a tilt series of two-dimensional (2-D) projections of Pt nanoparticles encapsulated inside dendrimers negatively stained with uranyl acetate. The direct 3-D visualization of Pt DENs elucidated their encapsulation characteristics with the spatial imaging of Pt nanoparticles embraced inside dendrimers in three dimensions. The encapsulation characteristics of Pt DENs were further verified with selective electrochemical poisoning experiments. In addition, quantitative 3-D structural characterization of Pt DENs provided more accurate and precise size distributions of nanoparticles than those obtained from conventional 2-D transmission electron microscopy analysis relying only on a 3-D structure projected on a 2-D plane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngwon Ju
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Joo Ro
- Center for Research Equipment, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju 28119, Republic of Korea.,Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon-Sun Yi
- Center for Research Equipment, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju 28119, Republic of Korea
| | - Taehoon Cho
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Il Kim
- Center for Research Equipment, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju 28119, Republic of Korea.,Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Won Yoon
- Center for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Research, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.,KHU-KIST Department of Converging Science and Technology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangmi Jun
- Center for Research Equipment, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju 28119, Republic of Korea.,Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Joohoon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.,KHU-KIST Department of Converging Science and Technology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
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11
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12
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Ju Y, Kim J. Composition-dependent catalytic activity of bimetallic PtPd dendrimer-encapsulated nanoparticles having an average size of 1.7 nm for hydrolytic dehydrogenation of ammonia borane. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11814-020-0604-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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13
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Onisuru OR, Oseghale CO, Meijboom R. In situ replacement of Cu-DEN: an approach for preparing a more noble metal nanocatalyst for catalytic use. NEW J CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj04381h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The advantage of dendritic monodisperse macromolecules’ dual templating ability was useful in the formation of silica-supported copper nanoparticles Cun@SiO2NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwatayo Racheal Onisuru
- Research Centre for Synthesis and Catalysis
- Department of Chemical Sciences
- University of Johannesburg
- Johannesburg 2006
- South Africa
| | - Charles O. Oseghale
- Research Centre for Synthesis and Catalysis
- Department of Chemical Sciences
- University of Johannesburg
- Johannesburg 2006
- South Africa
| | - Reinout Meijboom
- Research Centre for Synthesis and Catalysis
- Department of Chemical Sciences
- University of Johannesburg
- Johannesburg 2006
- South Africa
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Najafi F, Salami-Kalajahi M, Roghani-Mamaqani H, Kahaie-Khosrowshahi A. Effect of grafting ratio of poly(propylene imine) dendrimer onto gold nanoparticles on the properties of colloidal hybrids, their DOX loading and release behavior and cytotoxicity. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2019; 178:500-507. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.03.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Shin W, Wu A, Massidda MW, Foster C, Thomas N, Lee DW, Koh H, Ju Y, Kim J, Kim HJ. A Robust Longitudinal Co-culture of Obligate Anaerobic Gut Microbiome With Human Intestinal Epithelium in an Anoxic-Oxic Interface-on-a-Chip. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2019; 7:13. [PMID: 30792981 PMCID: PMC6374617 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2019.00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The majority of human gut microbiome is comprised of obligate anaerobic bacteria that exert essential metabolic functions in the human colon. These anaerobic gut bacteria constantly crosstalk with the colonic epithelium in a mucosal anoxic-oxic interface (AOI). However, in vitro recreation of the metabolically mismatched colonic AOI has been technically challenging. Furthermore, stable co-culture of the obligate anaerobic commensal microbiome and epithelial cells in a mechanically dynamic condition is essential for demonstrating the host-gut microbiome crosstalk. Here, we developed an anoxic-oxic interface-on-a-chip (AOI Chip) by leveraging a modified human gut-on-a-chip to demonstrate a controlled oxygen gradient in the lumen-capillary transepithelial interface by flowing anoxic and oxic culture medium at various physiological milieus. Computational simulation and experimental results revealed that the presence of the epithelial cell layer and the flow-dependent conditioning in the lumen microchannel is necessary and sufficient to create the steady-state vertical oxygen gradient in the AOI Chip. We confirmed that the created AOI does not compromise the viability, barrier function, mucin production, and the expression and localization of tight junction proteins in the 3D intestinal epithelial layer. Two obligate anaerobic commensal gut microbiome, Bifidobacterium adolescentis and Eubacterium hallii, that exert metabolic cross-feeding in vivo, were independently co-cultured with epithelial cells in the AOI Chip for up to a week without compromising any cell viability. Our new protocol for creating an AOI in a microfluidic gut-on-a-chip may enable to demonstrate the key physiological interactions of obligate anaerobic gut microbiome with the host cells associated with intestinal metabolism, homeostasis, and immune regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woojung Shin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, United States
| | - Alexander Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, United States
| | - Miles W Massidda
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, United States
| | - Charles Foster
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, United States
| | - Newin Thomas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, United States
| | - Dong-Woo Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hong Koh
- Department of Pediatrics, Severance Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Center, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Youngwon Ju
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Joohoon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.,KHU-KIST Department of Converging Science and Technology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyun Jung Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, United States.,Department of Medical Engineering, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
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