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Jagdale S, Agarwal B, Dixit A, Gaware S. Chitosan as excellent bio-macromolecule with myriad of anti-activities in biomedical applications - A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 257:128697. [PMID: 38096939 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 12/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/31/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the study is to explore the myriad of anti-activities of chitosan - deacylated derivative of chitin in biomedical applications. Chitosan consists of reactive residual amino groups, which can be modified chemically to obtain wide range of derivatives. These derivatives exhibit the controlled physicochemical characteristics, which in turn improve its functional properties. Such derivatives find numerous applications in the field of biomedical science, agriculture, tissue engineering, bone regeneration and environmental science. This study presents a comprehensive overview of the multifarious anti-activities of chitosan and its derivatives in the field of biomedical science including anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-HIV, anti-fungal, anti- inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer's, anti-hypertensive and anti-diabetic activity. It briefly details these anti-activities with respect to its mode of action, pharmacological effects and potential applications. It also presents the overview of current research exploring novel derivatives of chitosan and its anti- activities in the recent past. Finally, the review projects the prospective potential of chitosan and its derivatives and expects to encourage the readers to develop new drug delivery systems based on such chitosan derivatives and explore its applications in biomedical science for benefit of mankind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin Jagdale
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Marathwada Mitra Mandal's College of Pharmacy, Thergaon-Pune, Maharashtra 411033, India.
| | - Babita Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Marathwada Mitra Mandal's College of Pharmacy, Thergaon-Pune, Maharashtra 411033, India
| | - Abhishek Dixit
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Marathwada Mitra Mandal's College of Pharmacy, Thergaon-Pune, Maharashtra 411033, India
| | - Saurabh Gaware
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Marathwada Mitra Mandal's College of Pharmacy, Thergaon-Pune, Maharashtra 411033, India
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2
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Hogan KJ, Perez MR, Mikos AG. Extracellular matrix component-derived nanoparticles for drug delivery and tissue engineering. J Control Release 2023; 360:888-912. [PMID: 37482344 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.07.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) consists of a complex combination of proteins, proteoglycans, and other biomolecules. ECM-based materials have been demonstrated to have high biocompatibility and bioactivity, which may be harnessed for drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. Herein, nanoparticles incorporating ECM-based materials and their applications in drug delivery and tissue engineering are reviewed. Proteins such as gelatin, collagen, and fibrin as well as glycosaminoglycans including hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, and heparin have been employed for cancer therapeutic delivery, gene delivery, and wound healing and regenerative medicine. Strategies for modifying and functionalizing these materials with synthetic and natural polymers or to enable stimuli-responsive degradation and drug release have increased the efficacy of these materials and nano-systems. The incorporation and modification of ECM-based materials may be used to drive drug targeting and increase tissue-specific cell differentiation more effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie J Hogan
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Marissa R Perez
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Antonios G Mikos
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.
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3
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Dilnawaz F, Acharya S, Kanungo A. A clinical perspective of chitosan nanoparticles for infectious disease management. Polym Bull (Berl) 2023:1-25. [PMID: 37362954 PMCID: PMC10073797 DOI: 10.1007/s00289-023-04755-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Infectious diseases and their effective management are still a challenge in this modern era of medicine. Diseases, such as the SARS-CoV-2, Ebola virus, and Zika virus, still put human civilization at peril. Existing drug banks, which include antivirals, antibacterial, and small-molecule drugs, are the most advocated method for treatment, although effective but they still flounder in many instances. This calls for finding more effective alternatives for tackling the menace of infectious diseases. Nanoformulations are progressively being implemented for clinical translation and are being considered a new paradigm against infectious diseases. Natural polymers like chitosan are preferred to design nanoparticles owing to their biocompatibility, biodegradation, and long shelf-life. The chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) being highly adaptive delivers contemporary prevention for infectious diseases. Currently, they are being used as antibacterial, drug, and vaccine delivery vehicles, and wound-dressing materials, for infectious disease treatment. Although the recruitment of CNPs in clinical trials associated with infectious diseases is minimal, this may increase shortly due to the sudden emergence of unknown pathogens like SARS-CoV-2, thus turning them into a panacea for the management of microorganisms. This review particularly focuses on the all-around application of CNPs along with their recent clinical applications in infectious disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahima Dilnawaz
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Jatni, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 752050 India
| | - Sarbari Acharya
- Department of Biology, School of Applied Sciences, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751024 India
| | - Anwesha Kanungo
- Department of Biology, School of Applied Sciences, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751024 India
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4
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Chrzanowska M, Katafias A, van Eldik R. Reactivity of non-organometallic ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes and their application as catalysts for hydride transfer reactions. Front Chem 2023; 11:1150164. [PMID: 37007058 PMCID: PMC10050333 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2023.1150164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, we investigated the substitution behavior of a series of ruthenium(II) complexes of the general formula [RuII(terpy)(N∧N)Cl]Cl, where terpy = 2,2′:6′,2″-terpyridine, N∧N = bidentate ligand, in aqueous solutions. We have shown that the most and least reactive complexes of the series are [RuII(terpy)(en)Cl]Cl (en = ethylenediamine) and [RuII(terpy)(phen)Cl]Cl (phen = 1, 10-phenantroline), respectively, as a result of different electronic effects provided by the bidentate spectator chelates. Polypyridyl amine Ru(II) complex, viz. [Ru(terpy)(en)Cl]Cl and [Ru(terpy)(ampy)Cl]Cl (where ampy = 2-(aminomethyl)pyridine), in which the terpy chelate labilizes the metal center, are able to catalyze the conversion of NAD+ to 1,4-NADH using sodium formate as a source of hydride. We showed that this complex can control the [NAD+]/[NADH] ratio and potentially induce reductive stress in living cells, which is accepted as an effective method to kill cancer cells. Polypyridyl Ru(II) complexes, characterized in terms of the behavior in aqueous solutions, can be used as model systems to monitor heterogeneous multiphase ligand substitution reactions at the solid-liquid interface. Colloidal coordination compounds in the submicron range were synthesized from Ru(II)-aqua derivatives of starting chlorido complexes via the anti-solvent procedure and stabilized by a surfactant shell layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Chrzanowska
- Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Anna Katafias
- Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Rudi van Eldik
- Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
- *Correspondence: Rudi van Eldik,
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Žigrayová D, Mikušová V, Mikuš P. Advances in Antiviral Delivery Systems and Chitosan-Based Polymeric and Nanoparticulate Antivirals and Antiviral Carriers. Viruses 2023; 15:v15030647. [PMID: 36992356 PMCID: PMC10054433 DOI: 10.3390/v15030647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Current antiviral therapy research is focused on developing dosage forms that enable highly effective drug delivery, providing a selective effect in the organism, lower risk of adverse effects, a lower dose of active pharmaceutical ingredients, and minimal toxicity. In this article, antiviral drugs and the mechanisms of their action are summarized at the beginning as a prerequisite background to develop relevant drug delivery/carrier systems for them, classified and briefly discussed subsequently. Many of the recent studies aim at different types of synthetic, semisynthetic, and natural polymers serving as a favorable matrix for the antiviral drug carrier. Besides a wider view of different antiviral delivery systems, this review focuses on advances in antiviral drug delivery systems based on chitosan (CS) and derivatized CS carriers. CS and its derivatives are evaluated concerning methods of their preparation, their basic characteristics and properties, approaches to the incorporation of an antiviral drug in the CS polymer as well as CS nanoparticulate systems, and their recent biomedical applications in the context of actual antiviral therapy. The degree of development (i.e., research study, in vitro/ex vivo/in vivo preclinical testing), as well as benefits and limitations of CS polymer and CS nanoparticulate drug delivery systems, are reported for particular viral diseases and corresponding antivirotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Žigrayová
- Department of Galenic Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University Bratislava, Odbojárov 10, 83232 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Veronika Mikušová
- Department of Galenic Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University Bratislava, Odbojárov 10, 83232 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Peter Mikuš
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Nuclear Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University Bratislava, Odbojárov 10, 83232 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Toxicological and Antidoping Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University Bratislava, Odbojárov 10, 83232 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Correspondence:
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Asl FD, Mousazadeh M, Taji S, Bahmani A, Khashayar P, Azimzadeh M, Mostafavi E. Nano drug-delivery systems for management of AIDS: liposomes, dendrimers, gold and silver nanoparticles. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2023; 18:279-302. [PMID: 37125616 PMCID: PMC10242436 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2022-0248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
AIDS causes increasing mortality every year. With advancements in nanomedicine, different nanomaterials (NMs) have been applied to treat AIDS and overcome its limitations. Among different NMs, nanoparticles (NPs) can act as nanocarriers due to their enhanced solubility, sustained release, targeting abilities and facilitation of drug-dose reductions. This review discusses recent advancements in therapeutics for AIDS/HIV using various NMs, mainly focused on three classifications: polymeric, liposomal and inorganic NMs. Polymeric dendrimers, polyethylenimine-NPs, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-NPs, chitosan and the use of liposomal-based delivery systems and inorganic NPs, including gold and silver NPs, are explored. Recent advances, current challenges and future perspectives on the use of these NMs for better management of HIV/AIDS are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fateme Davarani Asl
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, 88138-33435, Iran
| | - Marziyeh Mousazadeh
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, 14115-154, Iran
| | - Shirinsadat Taji
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, 14115-154, Iran
- Institute for Genetics, University of Cologne, Cologne, D-50674, Germany
| | - Abbas Bahmani
- Institute for Nanoscience & Nanotechnology (INST), Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, 14588-89694, Iran
| | - Patricia Khashayar
- Center for Microsystems Technology, Imec & Ghent University, Ghent, 9050, Belgium
| | - Mostafa Azimzadeh
- Medical Nanotechnology & Tissue Engineering Research Center, Yazd Reproductive Sciences Institute, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, 89195-999, Iran
| | - Ebrahim Mostafavi
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Akbari A, Bigham A, Rahimkhoei V, Sharifi S, Jabbari E. Antiviral Polymers: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:1634. [PMID: 35566804 PMCID: PMC9101550 DOI: 10.3390/polym14091634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymers, due to their high molecular weight, tunable architecture, functionality, and buffering effect for endosomal escape, possess unique properties as a carrier or prophylactic agent in preventing pandemic outbreak of new viruses. Polymers are used as a carrier to reduce the minimum required dose, bioavailability, and therapeutic effectiveness of antiviral agents. Polymers are also used as multifunctional nanomaterials to, directly or indirectly, inhibit viral infections. Multifunctional polymers can interact directly with envelope glycoproteins on the viral surface to block fusion and entry of the virus in the host cell. Polymers can indirectly mobilize the immune system by activating macrophages and natural killer cells against the invading virus. This review covers natural and synthetic polymers that possess antiviral activity, their mechanism of action, and the effect of material properties like chemical composition, molecular weight, functional groups, and charge density on antiviral activity. Natural polymers like carrageenan, chitosan, fucoidan, and phosphorothioate oligonucleotides, and synthetic polymers like dendrimers and sialylated polymers are reviewed. This review discusses the steps in the viral replication cycle from binding to cell surface receptors to viral-cell fusion, replication, assembly, and release of the virus from the host cell that antiviral polymers interfere with to block viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Akbari
- Solid Tumor Research Center, Research Institute for Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia 57147, Iran; (A.A.); (V.R.)
| | - Ashkan Bigham
- Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials—National Research Council (IPCB-CNR), Viale J.F. Kennedy 54—Mostra d’Oltremare Pad. 20, 80125 Naples, Italy;
| | - Vahid Rahimkhoei
- Solid Tumor Research Center, Research Institute for Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia 57147, Iran; (A.A.); (V.R.)
| | - Sina Sharifi
- Disruptive Technology Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear and Schepens Eye Research Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
| | - Esmaiel Jabbari
- Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
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8
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Nanoparticle-based strategies to target HIV-infected cells. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2022; 213:112405. [PMID: 35255375 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Antiretroviral drugs employed for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections have remained largely ineffective due to their poor bioavailability, numerous adverse effects, modest uptake in infected cells, undesirable drug-drug interactions, the necessity for long-term drug therapy, and lack of access to tissues and reservoirs. Nanotechnology-based interventions could serve to overcome several of these disadvantages and thereby improve the therapeutic efficacy of antiretrovirals while reducing the morbidity and mortality due to the disease. However, attempts to use nanocarriers for the delivery of anti-retroviral drugs have started gaining momentum only in the past decade. This review explores in-depth the various nanocarriers that have been employed for the treatment of HIV infections highlighting their merits and possible demerits.
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Polysaccharides and Тheir Derivatives as Potential Antiviral Molecules. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020426. [PMID: 35216019 PMCID: PMC8879384 DOI: 10.3390/v14020426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, it appears that our scientific resources and the medical community are not sufficiently developed to combat rapid viral spread all over the world. A number of viruses causing epidemics have already disseminated across the world in the last few years, such as the dengue or chinkungunya virus, the Ebola virus, and other coronavirus families such as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV). The outbreaks of these infectious diseases have demonstrated the difficulty of treating an epidemic before the creation of vaccine. Different antiviral drugs already exist. However, several of them cause side effects or have lost their efficiency because of virus mutations. It is essential to develop new antiviral strategies, but ones that rely on more natural compounds to decrease the secondary effects. Polysaccharides, which have come to be known in recent years for their medicinal properties, including antiviral activities, are an excellent alternative. They are essential for the metabolism of plants, microorganisms, and animals, and are directly extractible. Polysaccharides have attracted more and more attention due to their therapeutic properties, low toxicity, and availability, and seem to be attractive candidates as antiviral drugs of tomorrow.
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Khalid A, Ahmed N, Qindeel M, Asad MI, Khan GM, Ur Rehman A. Development of novel biopolymer-based nanoparticles loaded cream for potential treatment of topical fungal infections. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2021; 47:1090-1099. [PMID: 34279160 DOI: 10.1080/03639045.2021.1957914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Biodegradable polymers are extensively used due to their efficient safety profiles. The aim of the current study was to fabricate, evaluate, and characterize biodegradable, biocompatible fluconazole (FLZ) loaded chitosan (CHS) chondroitin sulfate (CS) nanoparticles (NPs) for topical delivery. Polymers utilized in the formulation not only served as a carrier system but also aided in fighting with complex etiology of the disease due to their innate antifungal activities. METHODS NPs were prepared by the complex coacervation method, then were optimized for various parameters and subsequently loaded into a cream. RESULTS Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis showed spherical morphology of the NPs. Prepared NPs showed an average particle size in the range of 350-450 nm and an encapsulation efficiency (EE) of 86%. The polydispersity index (PDI) was found to be 0.148 that showed a uniform distribution of NPs. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy confirmed the absence of any electrostatic interaction between ingredients. In vitro drug release analyses exhibited a sustained release of the drug and higher antifungal activity than free FLZ. Ex vivo permeability and drug distribution in different skin layers ensured a site-specific delivery of the FLZ-NPs. As compared with free FLZ and other control groups, the prepared NPs also exhibited significantly higher antifungal activity against Candida albicans (p < .01). CONCLUSION It was concluded from the results that the FLZ-NPs laden cream could be a potential candidate for topical and site-specific delivery of the drug cargo for the potential treatment of fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimen Khalid
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Naveed Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Maimoona Qindeel
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | | | - Gul Majid Khan
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Asim Ur Rehman
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
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Jaber N, Al-Remawi M, Al-Akayleh F, Al-Muhtaseb N, Al-Adham ISI, Collier PJ. A review of the antiviral activity of Chitosan, including patented applications and its potential use against COVID-19. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 132:41-58. [PMID: 34218488 PMCID: PMC8447037 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Chitosan is an abundant organic polysaccharide, which can be relatively easily obtained by chemical modification of animal or fungal source materials. Chitosan and its derivatives have been shown to exhibit direct antiviral activity, to be useful vaccine adjuvants and to have potential anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity. This thorough and timely review looks at the recent history of investigations into the role of chitosan and its derivatives as an antiviral agent and proposes a future application in the treatment of endemic SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisrein Jaber
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman, Jordan
| | - Mayyas Al-Remawi
- Faculty of Pharmacy & Medical Sciences, University of Petra, Amman, Jordan
| | - Faisal Al-Akayleh
- Faculty of Pharmacy & Medical Sciences, University of Petra, Amman, Jordan
| | - Najah Al-Muhtaseb
- Faculty of Pharmacy & Medical Sciences, University of Petra, Amman, Jordan
| | | | - Phillip J Collier
- Faculty of Pharmacy & Medical Sciences, University of Petra, Amman, Jordan
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12
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Fundamental and Practical Aspects in the Formulation of Colloidal Polyelectrolyte Complexes of Chitosan and siRNA. Methods Mol Biol 2021. [PMID: 33928582 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1298-9_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
The formation of electrostatic interactions between polyanionic siRNA and polycations gives an easy access to the formation of colloidal particles capable of delivering siRNA in vitro or in vivo. Among the polycations used for siRNA delivery, chitosan occupies a special place due to its unique physicochemical and biological properties. In this chapter we describe the fundamental and practical aspects of the formation of colloidal complexes between chitosan and siRNA. The basis of the electrostatic complexation between oppositely charged polyelectrolytes is first introduced with a focus on the specific conditions to obtain stable colloid complex particles. Subsequent, the properties that make chitosan so special are described. In a third part, the main parameters influencing the colloidal properties and stability of siRNA/chitosan complexes are reviewed with emphasis on some practical aspects to consider in the preparation of complexes.
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13
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Boroumand H, Badie F, Mazaheri S, Seyedi ZS, Nahand JS, Nejati M, Baghi HB, Abbasi-Kolli M, Badehnoosh B, Ghandali M, Hamblin MR, Mirzaei H. Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles Against Viral Infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:643953. [PMID: 33816349 PMCID: PMC8011499 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.643953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral infections, in addition to damaging host cells, can compromise the host immune system, leading to frequent relapse or long-term persistence. Viruses have the capacity to destroy the host cell while liberating their own RNA or DNA in order to replicate within additional host cells. The viral life cycle makes it challenging to develop anti-viral drugs. Nanotechnology-based approaches have been suggested to deal effectively with viral diseases, and overcome some limitations of anti-viral drugs. Nanotechnology has enabled scientists to overcome the challenges of solubility and toxicity of anti-viral drugs, and can enhance their selectivity towards viruses and virally infected cells, while preserving healthy host cells. Chitosan is a naturally occurring polymer that has been used to construct nanoparticles (NPs), which are biocompatible, biodegradable, less toxic, easy to prepare, and can function as effective drug delivery systems (DDSs). Furthermore, chitosan is Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration (U.S. FDA). Chitosan NPs have been used in drug delivery by the oral, ocular, pulmonary, nasal, mucosal, buccal, or vaginal routes. They have also been studied for gene delivery, vaccine delivery, and advanced cancer therapy. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that chitosan NPs could be used as new therapeutic tools against viral infections. In this review we summarize reports concerning the therapeutic potential of chitosan NPs against various viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Homa Boroumand
- School of Medicine, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Fereshteh Badie
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Samaneh Mazaheri
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Kashan, Kashan, Iran
| | - Zeynab Sadat Seyedi
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Kashan, Kashan, Iran
| | - Javid Sadri Nahand
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Majid Nejati
- Anatomical Sciences Research Center, Institute for Basic Sciences, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Hossein Bannazadeh Baghi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Abbasi-Kolli
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bita Badehnoosh
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Dietary Supplements and Probiotic Research Center, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Maryam Ghandali
- School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Michael R. Hamblin
- Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Hamed Mirzaei
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Nutrition in Metabolic Diseases, Institute for Basic Sciences, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
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14
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EJEROMEDOGHENE O, ODERİNDE O, EGEJURU G, ADEWUYİ S. Chitosan-drug encapsulation as a potential candidate for COVID-19 drug delivery systems: A review. JOURNAL OF THE TURKISH CHEMICAL SOCIETY, SECTION A: CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.18596/jotcsa.773780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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15
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Siddiqui B, Rehman A, Haq IU, Ahmad NM, Ahmed N. Development, optimisation, and evaluation of nanoencapsulated diacerein emulgel for potential use in osteoarthritis. J Microencapsul 2020; 37:595-608. [DOI: 10.1080/02652048.2020.1829140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bazla Siddiqui
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Asim.ur. Rehman
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Ihsan-Ul Haq
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Nasir M. Ahmad
- Polymer Research Lab, School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Naveed Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
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16
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Liang L, Ahamed A, Ge L, Fu X, Lisak G. Advances in Antiviral Material Development. Chempluschem 2020; 85:2105-2128. [PMID: 32881384 PMCID: PMC7461489 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.202000460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The rise in human pandemics demands prudent approaches in antiviral material development for disease prevention and treatment via effective protective equipment and therapeutic strategy. However, the current state of the antiviral materials research is predominantly aligned towards drug development and its related areas, catering to the field of pharmaceutical technology. This review distinguishes the research advances in terms of innovative materials exhibiting antiviral activities that take advantage of fast-developing nanotechnology and biopolymer technology. Essential concepts of antiviral principles and underlying mechanisms are illustrated, followed with detailed descriptions of novel antiviral materials including inorganic nanomaterials, organic nanomaterials and biopolymers. The biomedical applications of the antiviral materials are also elaborated based on the specific categorization. Challenges and future prospects are discussed to facilitate the research and development of protective solutions and curative treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Liang
- School of Civil and Environmental EngineeringNanyang Technological University50 Nanyang Ave, N1 01a–29Singapore639798Singapore
- Interdisciplinary Graduate ProgramNanyang Technological University1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech OneSingapore637141Singapore
- Residues and Resource Reclamation CentreNanyang Environment and Water Research Institute Nanyang Technological University1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech OneSingapore637141Singapore
| | - Ashiq Ahamed
- Residues and Resource Reclamation CentreNanyang Environment and Water Research Institute Nanyang Technological University1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech OneSingapore637141Singapore
- Laboratory of Molecular Science and EngineeringJohan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre Åbo Akademi UniversityFI-20500Turku/ÅboFinland
| | - Liya Ge
- Residues and Resource Reclamation CentreNanyang Environment and Water Research Institute Nanyang Technological University1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech OneSingapore637141Singapore
| | - Xiaoxu Fu
- School of Civil and Environmental EngineeringNanyang Technological University50 Nanyang Ave, N1 01a–29Singapore639798Singapore
- Residues and Resource Reclamation CentreNanyang Environment and Water Research Institute Nanyang Technological University1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech OneSingapore637141Singapore
| | - Grzegorz Lisak
- School of Civil and Environmental EngineeringNanyang Technological University50 Nanyang Ave, N1 01a–29Singapore639798Singapore
- Residues and Resource Reclamation CentreNanyang Environment and Water Research Institute Nanyang Technological University1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech OneSingapore637141Singapore
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17
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Muripiti V, Gondru R, Patri SV. Review of Zinc(II) Scaffolds: Efficient Role in Gene Delivery. ChemistrySelect 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202001557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Venkanna Muripiti
- Department of Chemistry National Institute of Technology Warangal Warangal 506004 Telangana India
| | - Ramesh Gondru
- Environmental Monitoring & Exposure Assessment (Air) Laboratory ICMR-National Institute for Research in Environmental Health (NIREH) Bhopal 462030 Madhya Pradesh India
| | - Srilakshmi V. Patri
- Department of Chemistry National Institute of Technology Warangal Warangal 506004 Telangana India
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18
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Ding F, Fu J, Tao C, Yu Y, He X, Gao Y, Zhang Y. Recent Advances of Chitosan and its Derivatives in Biomedical Applications. Curr Med Chem 2020; 27:3023-3045. [DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190405151538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Chitosan is the second-most abundant natural polysaccharide. It has unique characteristics,
such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and non-toxicity. Due to the existence of its free amine
group and hydroxyl groups on its backbone chain, chitosan can undergo further chemical modifications
to generate Chitosan Derivatives (CDs) that permit additional biomedical functionality. Chitosan
and CDs can be fabricated into various forms, including Nanoparticles (NPs), micelles, hydrogels,
nanocomposites and nano-chelates. For these reasons, chitosan and CDs have found a tremendous
variety of biomedical applications in recent years. This paper mainly presents the prominent
applications of chitosan and CDs for cancer therapy/diagnosis, molecule biosensing, viral infection,
and tissue engineering over the past five years. Moreover, future research directions on chitosan are
also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Ding
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, Jianghan University, Wuhan Economic and Technological Development Zone, Wuhan, 430056, China
| | - Jiawei Fu
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, Jianghan University, Wuhan Economic and Technological Development Zone, Wuhan, 430056, China
| | - Chuang Tao
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, Jianghan University, Wuhan Economic and Technological Development Zone, Wuhan, 430056, China
| | - Yanhua Yu
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, Jianghan University, Wuhan Economic and Technological Development Zone, Wuhan, 430056, China
| | - Xianran He
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, Jianghan University, Wuhan Economic and Technological Development Zone, Wuhan, 430056, China
| | - Yangguang Gao
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, Jianghan University, Wuhan Economic and Technological Development Zone, Wuhan, 430056, China
| | - Yongmin Zhang
- Institut Parisien de Chimie Moléculaire, CNRS UMR 8232, Sorbonne Université, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
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19
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Wu D, Zhu L, Li Y, Wang H, Xu S, Zhang X, Wu R, Yang G. Superparamagnetic chitosan nanocomplexes for colorectal tumor-targeted delivery of irinotecan. Int J Pharm 2020; 584:119394. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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20
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Moles-Aranda C, Calpena-Campmany AC, Halbaut-Bellowa L, Díaz-Tomé V, Otero-Espinar FJ, Morales-Molina JA, Clares-Naveros B. Novel Polymeric Formulation for Removal of Gastrointestinal Polyps by Digestive Endoscopy. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:E322. [PMID: 32252471 PMCID: PMC7238115 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12040322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) and endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) are two techniques used in the resection of gastrointestinal mucosal polyps. The aim of this work is the development and evaluation of an innovative polymeric solution containing sodium carboxymethylcellulose and hyaluronic acid. For this purpose, several mixtures of these two main components, as well as other components such as fructose, citric acid, and zinc, are evaluated in terms of physicochemical and microbiological properties, rheological behavior, extensibility, syringeability, and stability at different storage conditions. Furthermore, the potential production of mucosal elevation and duration is also studied by an ex vivo model using porcine stomach and colon. Results show that the developed polymeric solutions possess optimal values of pH, from 4.58 to 6.63, for their use in the gastrointestinal tract. The formulations exhibit both Newtonian and pseudoplastic behaviors with different viscosity values as a function of their composition. All formulations exhibit high stability properties and no bacterial or fungal growth is detected. MCS01 and MCS05 are the polymeric solutions with the best syringeability results. In this line, MCS05 is the formulation that provides the highest, 2.20 ± 0.18 cm and 1.40 ± 0.11 cm, and longest-lasting, for more than 120 min, elevation effect on porcine submucosal stomach and colon tissues, respectively. Thus, it can be concluded that polymeric solution MCS05 might be considered as a promising tool for use in human EMR and ESD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Moles-Aranda
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, University Campus of Cartuja, 18071 Granada, Spain;
| | - Ana C. Calpena-Campmany
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 27-31 Joan XXIII Ave., 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (A.C.C.-C.); (L.H.-B.)
| | - Lyda Halbaut-Bellowa
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 27-31 Joan XXIII Ave., 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (A.C.C.-C.); (L.H.-B.)
| | - Victoria Díaz-Tomé
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Campus Vida, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15872 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (V.D.-T.); (F.J.O.-E.)
| | - Francisco J. Otero-Espinar
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Campus Vida, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15872 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (V.D.-T.); (F.J.O.-E.)
| | | | - Beatriz Clares-Naveros
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, University Campus of Cartuja, 18071 Granada, Spain;
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21
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Wu D, Zhu L, Li Y, Zhang X, Xu S, Yang G, Delair T. Chitosan-based Colloidal Polyelectrolyte Complexes for Drug Delivery: A Review. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 238:116126. [PMID: 32299572 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) as safe drug delivery carriers, are spontaneously formed by mixing the oppositely charged polyelectrolyte solutions in water without using organic solvents nor chemical cross-linker or surfactant. Intensifying attentions on the PECs study are aroused in academia and industry since the fabrication process of PECs is mild and they are ideal vectors for the delivery of susceptible drugs and macromolecules. Chitosan as the unique natural cationic polysaccharide, is a good bioadhesive material. Besides, due to its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, abundant availability and hydrophilic nature, chitosan-based PECs have been extensively applied for drug delivery, particularly after administration through mucosal and parenteral routes. The purpose of this review is to compile the recent advances on the biomedical applications of chitosan-based PECs, with specific focuses on the mucosal delivery, cancer therapy, gene delivery and anti-HIV therapy. The challenges and the perspectives of the chitosan-based PECs are briefly commented as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danjun Wu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Lixi Zhu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Yi Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Xueling Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Shumin Xu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Gensheng Yang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China.
| | - Thierry Delair
- Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, UMR CNRS 5223, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 15 Bd. André Latarjet, 69622, Villeurbanne Cedex, France.
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22
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Zhang Q, Zhou Z, Li C, Wu P, Sun M. pH-Switchable Coordinative Micelles for Enhancing Cellular Transfection of Biocompatible Polycations. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:20689-20698. [PMID: 31117451 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b04668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Inefficient transfection of biocompatible low-molecular-weight (LMW) polycations, such as 1.8k polyethylenimine (PEI), is a major challenge for successful nucleic acid delivery. Current strategies to improve transfection efficiency are bottlenecked by maintaining the balance between efficient gene encapsulation and on-demand cargo release. Here, we developed a new class of Zn(II)-coordinated micelles, which showed tight small interfering RNA (siRNA) binding and pH-switchable release. The dipicolylamine-modified PEI 1.8k (PD) and dopamine-conjugated cholesterol (Chol-Dopa) assemble into coordinative micelles (Zn-PD/Chol-Dopa) via the coordination of 2,2'-dipicolylamine (DPA) and Dopa through Zn(II) as a bridge. The high phosphate-binding affinity of Zn-DPA enhanced the siRNA packaging and the interaction between cholesterol and cell membranes enhanced cellular uptake. Moreover, the coordination effect weakened in the acidic environment of lyso/endosome, triggering the disassembly of micelles and siRNA release. These properties of the micelles resulted in strong siRNA transfection efficiencies in various cell lines. Our strategy of constructing coordinative micelles improves the transfection efficiency of LMW PEI and holds tremendous potential to develop the endogenous responsive gene delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Department of Pharmaceutics , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009 , China
| | - Zhanwei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Department of Pharmaceutics , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009 , China
| | - Chenzi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Department of Pharmaceutics , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009 , China
| | - Pengkai Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Department of Pharmaceutics , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009 , China
| | - Minjie Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Department of Pharmaceutics , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009 , China
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23
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Grande F, Ioele G, Occhiuzzi MA, De Luca M, Mazzotta E, Ragno G, Garofalo A, Muzzalupo R. Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors Nanosystems Designed for Drug Stability and Controlled Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:E197. [PMID: 31035595 PMCID: PMC6572254 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11050197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
An in-depth analysis of nanotechnology applications for the improvement of solubility, distribution, bioavailability and stability of reverse transcriptase inhibitors is reported. Current clinically used nucleoside and non-nucleoside agents, included in combination therapies, were examined in the present survey, as drugs belonging to these classes are the major component of highly active antiretroviral treatments. The inclusion of such agents into supramolecular vesicular systems, such as liposomes, niosomes and lipid solid NPs, overcomes several drawbacks related to the action of these drugs, including drug instability and unfavorable pharmacokinetics. Overall results reported in the literature show that the performances of these drugs could be significantly improved by inclusion into nanosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fedora Grande
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Giuseppina Ioele
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Maria Antonietta Occhiuzzi
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Michele De Luca
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Mazzotta
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Gaetano Ragno
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Antonio Garofalo
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
| | - Rita Muzzalupo
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy.
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