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Zheng Z, Zhou J, Zhu Y. Computational approach inspired advancements of solid-state electrolytes for lithium secondary batteries: from first-principles to machine learning. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:3134-3166. [PMID: 38375570 DOI: 10.1039/d3cs00572k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
The increasing demand for high-security, high-performance, and low-cost energy storage systems (EESs) driven by the adoption of renewable energy is gradually surpassing the capabilities of commercial lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Solid-state electrolytes (SSEs), including inorganics, polymers, and composites, have emerged as promising candidates for next-generation all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs). ASSBs offer higher theoretical energy densities, improved safety, and extended cyclic stability, making them increasingly popular in academia and industry. However, the commercialization of ASSBs still faces significant challenges, such as unsatisfactory interfacial resistance and rapid dendrite growth. To overcome these problems, a thorough understanding of the complex chemical-electrochemical-mechanical interactions of SSE materials is essential. Recently, computational methods have played a vital role in revealing the fundamental mechanisms associated with SSEs and accelerating their development, ranging from atomistic first-principles calculations, molecular dynamic simulations, multiphysics modeling, to machine learning approaches. These methods enable the prediction of intrinsic properties and interfacial stability, investigation of material degradation, and exploration of topological design, among other factors. In this comprehensive review, we provide an overview of different numerical methods used in SSE research. We discuss the current state of knowledge in numerical auxiliary approaches, with a particular focus on machine learning-enabled methods, for the understanding of multiphysics-couplings of SSEs at various spatial and time scales. Additionally, we highlight insights and prospects for SSE advancements. This review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and industry professionals working with energy storage systems and computational modeling and offers perspectives on the future directions of SSE development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoyuan Zheng
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 211816, China.
| | - Jie Zhou
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 211816, China.
| | - Yusong Zhu
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 211816, China.
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2
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Ma Y, Yu W, Shang W, Zhao Z, Yu J, Tan P. Design of Thick Electrodes with Vertical Channels for Aqueous Batteries: Experimental and Numerical Analysis. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:5943-5956. [PMID: 38285498 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c17470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Developing thick electrodes with high-area loadings is a direct method for boosting the energy density. However, this approach also leads to a proportional increase in the resistance to charge transport. Optimizing the microstructure of the electrode can effectively enhance the charge transport kinetics in thick electrodes. Herein, a low-tortuosity nickel electrode with vertical channels (VC-Ni) is fabricated using a phase inversion method. A high-loading VC-Ni electrode (26.7 mg cm-2) delivers a superior specific capacity of 134.0 mAh g-1 at a 5 C rate, significantly outperforming the conventional nickel electrode (Con-Ni). Numerical simulations reveal the fast transport kinetics within the vertical channel electrodes. For the thick electrode, the VC-Ni electrode shows a substantially lower concentration gradient of OH- and H+ compared to the Con-Ni electrode. Notably, beyond a critical loading of 26.5 mg cm-2, the specific capacity initially increases with volume fraction, peaking at 50%, and then diminishes. The specific capacity increases as the channel size decreases, but the tendency to increase gradually decreases. The highest specific capacity is achieved with an inverted trapezoidal channel shape, characterized by larger pores near the separator and smaller pores near the current collector. This work is of guidance for the design of thick electrodes for high-performance aqueous batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanyi Ma
- Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Wentao Yu
- Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Wenxu Shang
- Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Zhongxi Zhao
- Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Jianwen Yu
- Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Peng Tan
- Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
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Li W, Zheng S, Gao Y, Feng D, Ru Y, Zuo T, Chen B, Zhang Z, Gao Z, Geng H, Wang B. High Rate and Low-Temperature Stable Lithium Metal Batteries Enabled by Lithiophilic 3D Cu-CuSn Porous Framework. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:7805-7814. [PMID: 37651260 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c01266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Lithium (Li) metal is regarded as the "Holy Grail" of anodes for high-energy rechargeable lithium batteries by virtue of its ultrahigh theoretical specific capacity and the lowest redox potential. However, the Li dendrite impedes the practical application of Li metal anodes. Herein, lithiophilic three-dimensional Cu-CuSn porous framework (3D Cu-CuSn) was fabricated by a vapor phase dealloying strategy via the difference in saturated vapor pressure between different metals and the Kirkendall effect. CuSn alloy sites were converted into LiSn alloy sites through the molten Li infusion method, and composite Li metal anodes (3D Cu-LiSn-Li) are achieved. Alloyed tin, as the bridge between the porous copper substrate and metallic Li, plays a critical role in optimizing Li nucleation and enhancing the fast lithium migration kinetics. This work demonstrates that lithiophilic binary copper alloys are an effective way to achieve room-temperature high rate performance and satisfied low-temperature cycling stability for Li metal batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbiao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, P. R. China
| | - Shumin Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Yibo Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Dan Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Yadong Ru
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Tingting Zuo
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Bin Chen
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Zhongyuan Zhang
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Zhaoshun Gao
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, P. R. China
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Haitao Geng
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Bao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, P. R. China
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4
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Wang H, Li J, Huang Y, Li Z. Engineering Array-Patterned Cathodes and Anodes for Synergistically Enabling High-Performance Lithium Metal Batteries. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:15525-15532. [PMID: 36926833 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c00379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Critical challenges such as safety and cyclability concerns resulting from the uncontrollable dendritic lithium (Li) growth, especially during the fast charging/discharging process, have seriously hampered the commercialization of Li metal batteries (LMBs). Here, a novel array-patterned LiFePO4 (LFP) cathode prepared via a simple, scalable calendaring method is developed to enable highly stable Li metal anodes with patterned ditches and bulges during the cell assembling process. Both the structured electrodes provide a remarkably increased electroactive surface area to lower the current density locally, facilitating Li-ion transport kinetics and homogeneous Li plating/stripping. Due to the long-term internal pressure in the cell, the structured LFP and Li electrodes can maintain their original structure during sustained cycling. Such distinctive electrode architectures and cell design synergistically enable excellent rate capability with a discharge capacity of up to 128 mA h g-1 at a high current density of 9 mA cm-2 and impressive cycling stability, with 89.6% capacity retention after 300 cycles at 1.5 mA cm-2. Moreover, ultrasonic transmission mapping is carried out and demonstrates no gas behavior in operating modified Li||LFP pouch cells over prolonged cycling. This simple fabrication method can potentially be applied to many other active materials to enable practical LMBs with high performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mold Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Jianbo Li
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mold Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Yunhui Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mold Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Zhen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mold Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
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Ju Z, Zhang X, Wu J, King ST, Chang CC, Yan S, Xue Y, Takeuchi KJ, Marschilok AC, Wang L, Takeuchi ES, Yu G. Tortuosity Engineering for Improved Charge Storage Kinetics in High-Areal-Capacity Battery Electrodes. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:6700-6708. [PMID: 35921591 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c02100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The increasing demands of electronic devices and electric transportation necessitate lithium-ion batteries with simultaneous high energy and power capabilities. However, rate capabilities are often limited in high-loading electrodes due to the lengthy and tortuous ion transport paths with their electrochemical behaviors governed by complicated electrode architectures still elusive. Here, we report the electrode-level tortuosity engineering design enabling improved charge storage kinetics in high-energy electrodes. Both high areal capacity and high-rate capability can be achieved beyond the practical level of mass loadings in electrodes with vertically oriented architectures. The electrochemical properties in electrodes with various architectures were quantitatively investigated through correlating the characteristic time with tortuosity. The lithium-ion transport kinetics regulated by electrode architectures was further studied via combining the three-dimensional electrode architecture visualization and simulation. The tortuosity-controlled charge storage kinetics revealed in this study can be extended to general electrode systems and provide useful design consideration for next-generation high-energy/power batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengyu Ju
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Xiao Zhang
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Jingyi Wu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Steven T King
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Chung-Chueh Chang
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- ThINC Facility at the Advanced Energy Research and Technology Center at Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Shan Yan
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Yuan Xue
- ThINC Facility at the Advanced Energy Research and Technology Center at Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Kenneth J Takeuchi
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Amy C Marschilok
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Lei Wang
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Esther S Takeuchi
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Guihua Yu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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Wu J, Ju Z, Zhang X, Marschilok AC, Takeuchi KJ, Wang H, Takeuchi ES, Yu G. Gradient Design for High-Energy and High-Power Batteries. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2202780. [PMID: 35644837 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202202780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Charge transport is a key process that dominates battery performance, and the microstructures of the cathode, anode, and electrolyte play a central role in guiding ion and/or electron transport inside the battery. Rational design of key battery components with varying microstructure along the charge-transport direction to realize optimal local charge-transport dynamics can compensate for reaction polarization, which accelerates electrochemical reaction kinetics. Here, the principles of charge-transport mechanisms and their decisive role in battery performance are presented, followed by a discussion of the correlation between charge-transport regulation and battery microstructure design. The design strategies of the gradient cathodes, lithium-metal anodes, and solid-state electrolytes are summarized. Future directions and perspectives of gradient design are provided at the end to enable practically accessible high-energy and high-power-density batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Wu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, 266100, China
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Zhengyu Ju
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Xiao Zhang
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Amy C Marschilok
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Energy and Photon Sciences Directorate, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Kenneth J Takeuchi
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Energy and Photon Sciences Directorate, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Huanlei Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, 266100, China
| | - Esther S Takeuchi
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Energy and Photon Sciences Directorate, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Guihua Yu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program and Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
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Wu J, Ju Z, Zhang X, Xu X, Takeuchi KJ, Marschilok AC, Takeuchi ES, Yu G. Low-Tortuosity Thick Electrodes with Active Materials Gradient Design for Enhanced Energy Storage. ACS NANO 2022; 16:4805-4812. [PMID: 35234442 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c00129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The ever-growing energy demand of modern society calls for the development of high-loading and high-energy-density batteries, and substantial research efforts are required to optimize electrode microstructures for improved energy storage. Low-tortuosity architecture proves effective in promoting charge transport kinetics in thick electrodes; however, heterogeneous electrochemical mass transport along the depth direction is inevitable, especially at high C-rates. In this work, we create an active material gradient in low-tortuosity electrodes along ion-transport direction to compensate for uneven reaction kinetics and the nonuniform lithiation/delithiation process in thick electrodes. The gradual decrease of active material concentration from the separator to the current collector reduces the integrated ion diffusion distance and accelerates the electrochemical reaction kinetics, leading to improved rate capabilities. The structure advantages combining low-tortuosity pores and active material gradient offer high mass loading (60 mg cm-2) and enhanced performance. Comprehensive understanding of the effect of active material gradient architecture on electrode kinetics has been elucidated by electrochemical characterization and simulations, which can be useful for development of batteries with high-energy/power densities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Wu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Zhengyu Ju
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Xiao Zhang
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Xiao Xu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Kenneth J Takeuchi
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Energy and Photon Sciences Directorate, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Amy C Marschilok
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Energy and Photon Sciences Directorate, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Esther S Takeuchi
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Interdisciplinary Science Department, Energy and Photon Sciences Directorate, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
- Institute for Electrochemically Stored Energy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Guihua Yu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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Boyce AM, Cumming DJ, Huang C, Zankowski SP, Grant PS, Brett DJL, Shearing PR. Design of Scalable, Next-Generation Thick Electrodes: Opportunities and Challenges. ACS NANO 2021; 15:18624-18632. [PMID: 34870983 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c09687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Lithium-ion battery electrodes are on course to benefit from current research in structure re-engineering to allow for the implementation of thicker electrodes. Increasing the thickness of a battery electrode enables significant improvements in gravimetric energy density while simultaneously reducing manufacturing costs. Both metrics are critical if the transition to sustainable transport systems is to be fully realized commercially. However, significant barriers exist that prevent the use of such microstructures: performance issues, manufacturing challenges, and scalability all remain open areas of research. In this Perspective, we discuss the challenges in adapting current manufacturing processes for thick electrodes and the opportunities that pore engineering presents in order to design thicker and better electrodes while simultaneously considering long-term performance and scalability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Boyce
- Electrochemical Innovation Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 7JE, United Kingdom
- The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Becquerel Avenue, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, United Kingdom
| | - Denis J Cumming
- The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Becquerel Avenue, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, United Kingdom
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, United Kingdom
| | - Chun Huang
- The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Becquerel Avenue, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, United Kingdom
- Department of Engineering, King's College London, London WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom
| | - Stanislaw P Zankowski
- The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Becquerel Avenue, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, United Kingdom
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PH, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick S Grant
- The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Becquerel Avenue, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, United Kingdom
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PH, United Kingdom
| | - Dan J L Brett
- Electrochemical Innovation Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 7JE, United Kingdom
- The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Becquerel Avenue, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, United Kingdom
| | - Paul R Shearing
- Electrochemical Innovation Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 7JE, United Kingdom
- The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Becquerel Avenue, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, United Kingdom
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