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Urbieta M, Barbry M, Koval P, Rivacoba A, Sánchez-Portal D, Aizpurua J, Zabala N. Footprints of atomic-scale features in plasmonic nanoparticles as revealed by electron energy loss spectroscopy. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024; 26:14991-15004. [PMID: 38741574 DOI: 10.1039/d4cp01034e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
We present a first-principles theoretical study of the atomistic footprints in the valence electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) of nanometer-size metallic particles. Charge density maps of excited plasmons and EEL spectra for specific electron paths through a nanoparticle (Na380 atom cluster) are modeled using ab initio calculations within time-dependent density functional theory. Our findings unveil the atomic-scale sensitivity of EELS within this low-energy spectral range. Whereas localized surface plasmons (LSPs) are particularly sensitive to the atomistic structure of the surface probed by the electron beam, confined bulk plasmons (CBPs) reveal quantum size effects within the nanoparticle's volume. Moreover, we prove that classical local dielectric theories mimicking the atomistic structure of the nanoparticles reproduce the LSP trends observed in quantum calculations, but fall short in describing the CBP behavior observed under different electron trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattin Urbieta
- Matematika Aplikatua Saila, Gipuzkoako Ingeniaritza Eskola (Eibarko Atala), University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 20018 Eibar, Spain.
- Centro de Física de Materiales CSIC - UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 5, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
| | - Marc Barbry
- Centro de Física de Materiales CSIC - UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 5, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
| | - Peter Koval
- Simune Atomistics S.L., Avenida de Tolosa 76, Donostia-San Sebastian 20018, Spain
| | - Alberto Rivacoba
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
| | - Daniel Sánchez-Portal
- Centro de Física de Materiales CSIC - UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 5, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
| | - Javier Aizpurua
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
- Department of Electricity and Electronics, FCT-ZTF, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena z/g, Leioa, Bizkaia 48940, Spain.
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Bizkaia 48011, Spain
| | - Nerea Zabala
- Centro de Física de Materiales CSIC - UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 5, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia-San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa 20018, Spain
- Department of Electricity and Electronics, FCT-ZTF, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena z/g, Leioa, Bizkaia 48940, Spain.
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Thøgersen A, Jensen IJT, Belle BD, Stange M, Reinertsen VM, Kjeldstad T, Prytz Ø, Monakhov E, Kepaptsoglou D. Plasmonic properties of aluminium nanowires in amorphous silicon. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2022; 35:065301. [PMID: 36379064 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/aca30e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Plasmonic structures can help enhance optical activity in the ultraviolet (UV) region and therefore enhancing photocatalytic reactions and the detection of organic and biological species. Most plasmonic structures are composed of Ag or Au. However, producing structures small enough for optical activity in the UV region has proved difficult. In this study, we demonstrate that aluminium nanowires are an excellent alternative. We investigated the plasmonic properties of the Al nanowires as well as the optoelectronic properties of the surroundinga - Simatrix by combining scanning transmission electron microscopy imaging, electron energy loss spectroscopy and electrodynamic modelling. We have found that the Al nanowires have distinct plasmonic modes in the UV and far UV region, from 0.75 eV to 13 eV. In addition, simulated results found that the size and spacing of the Al nanowires, as well as the embedding material were shown to have a large impact on the type of surface plasmon energies that can be generated in the material. Using electromagnetic modelling, we have identified the modes and illustrated how they could be tuned further.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marit Stange
- SINTEF Industry, PO Box 124 Blindern, 0314 Oslo, Norway
| | - Vilde Mari Reinertsen
- Department of Physics, Centre for Materials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1048 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Torunn Kjeldstad
- Department of Physics, Centre for Materials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1048 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Øystein Prytz
- Department of Physics, Centre for Materials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1048 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Edouard Monakhov
- Department of Physics, Centre for Materials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1048 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Demie Kepaptsoglou
- SuperSTEM, SciTech Daresbury Science and Innovation Campus, Keckwick Lane, Daresbury WA4 4AD, United Kingdom
- Department of Physics, University of York, Heslington YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
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3
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Elibol K, Downing C, Hobbs RG. Nanoscale mapping of shifts in dark plasmon modes in sub 10 nm aluminum nanoantennas. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33:475203. [PMID: 35944508 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac8812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we report the fabrication and spectroscopic characterization of subwavelength aluminum nanocavities-consisting of hexamer or tetramer clusters of sub 10 nm width Al nanorods-with tunable localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) energies on suspended SiNxmembranes. Here the volume plasmon (VP) and LSPR modes of lithographically-fabricated Al nanocavities are revealed by low-loss electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) in an aberration corrected scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM). We show that the existence of grain boundaries (GBs) in these nanocavities results in shifts in the VP energy and a reduction in the VP lifetime. We map the VP energy and lifetime across GBs and we observe a decrease in VP energy and lifetime at GBs that is consistent with a reduction in free carrier density and increased plasmon scattering at these locations. Dipolar LSPR modes resonant in the UV and blue regions of the electromagnetic spectrum as well as higher-energy optically dark quadrupolar and hexapolar LSPR modes are also observed and mapped by STEM and EELS. All LSPR modes are confirmed via electromagnetic simulations based on the boundary element method. Both tetramer and hexamer structures support the excitation of dipolar bright and dipolar dark modes. Finally, we find that asymmetries in fabricated nanorod hexamer and tetramer nanocavities result in a mode mixing leading to a shift in dipolar dark LSPR modes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenan Elibol
- School of Chemistry, Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN) and Advanced Materials and Bio-Engineering Research Centre (AMBER), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Clive Downing
- School of Chemistry, Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN) and Advanced Materials and Bio-Engineering Research Centre (AMBER), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Richard G Hobbs
- School of Chemistry, Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN) and Advanced Materials and Bio-Engineering Research Centre (AMBER), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
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4
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Elibol K, van Aken PA. Hybrid Graphene-Supported Aluminum Plasmonics. ACS NANO 2022; 16:11931-11943. [PMID: 35904978 PMCID: PMC9413403 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c01730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Controlled fabrication of devices for plasmonics on suspended graphene enables obtaining tunable localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs), reducing the red-shift of LSPRs, and creating hybrid 3D-2D systems promising for adjustable dipole-dipole coupling and plasmon-mediated catalysis. Here, we apply a low-cost fabrication methodology to produce patterned aluminum nanostructures (bowties and tetramers) on graphene monolayers via electron-beam lithography and trap platinum (Pt) nanoclusters (NCs) within their hotspots by thermal annealing. We reveal the LSPRs of aluminum plasmonics on graphene using electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) and energy-filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM) in a monochromated scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM). The LSPRs of these nanostructures are measured to be between visible and ultraviolet regions of the spectrum and are confirmed by electromagnetic simulations. The antibonding dipole and bonding dipole modes of both structures are tuned by controlling their gap size. The tetramers enable the simultaneous excitation of both antibonding and bonding dipole modes at the poles of nanoprisms, while bowties allow us to excite these modes separately either at the poles or within the hotspot. We further show that the hybrid nanocavity-NC systems are in the intermediate coupling regime providing an enhanced plasmon absorption in the Pt NCs via the energy transfer from the antibonding dipole mode to the Pt NCs. The dipole LSPR of Pt NCs also couples to the bonding-type breathing mode in bowties. Our findings suggest that these hybrid nanocavity-graphene systems are of high application potential for plasmon-mediated catalysis, surface-enhanced fluorescence, and quantum technologies.
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Elibol K, van Aken PA. Uncovering the Evolution of Low-Energy Plasmons in Nanopatterned Aluminum Plasmonics on Graphene. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:5825-5831. [PMID: 35820031 PMCID: PMC9335878 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
We report adjusting the charge-transfer-plasmon (CTP) resonances of aluminum (Al) bowties on suspended monolayer graphene via controlled nanofabrication and focused electron-beam irradiation. CTP resonances of bowties with a conductive junction blue-shift with an increase in junction width, whereas their 3λ/2 and λ resonances barely red-shift. These plasmon modes are derived and confirmed by an LC circuit model and electromagnetic simulations performed with boundary-element and frequency-domain methods. A monotonic decay of the CTP lifetime is observed, while the junction width is extended. Instead, the lifetimes of 3λ/2 and λ resonances are nearly independent of junction width. When the junction is shrunk by electron-beam irradiation, all antenna resonances red-shift. Having created an electron-beam-induced sub 5 nm gap in bowties, we monitor the unambiguous transition of a CTP into a bonding-type gap mode, which is highly sensitive to the separation distance. Meanwhile, the 3λ/2 and λ resonances evolve into dipolar bright and dipolar dark modes.
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Zhao X, Du C, Leng R, Li L, Luo W, Wu W, Xiang Y, Ren M, Zhang X, Cai W, Xu J. Linewidth narrowing of aluminum breathing plasmon resonances in Bragg grating decorated nanodisks. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2021; 3:4286-4291. [PMID: 36132839 PMCID: PMC9417353 DOI: 10.1039/d1na00184a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Plasmon resonances with high-quality are of great importance in light emission control and light-matter interactions. Nevertheless, inherent ohmic and radiative losses usually hinder the plasmon performance of metallic nanostructures, especially for aluminum (Al). Here we demonstrate a Bragg grating decorated nanodisk to narrow the linewidth of breathing plasmon resonances compared with a commensurate nanodisk. Two kinds of plasmon resonant modes and the corresponding mode patterns are investigated in cathodoluminescence (CL) depending on the different electron bombardment positions, and the experimental results agree well with full wave electromagnetic simulations. Linewidth narrowing can be clearly understood using an approximated magnetic dipole model. Our results suggest a feasible mechanism for linewidth narrowing of plasmon resonances as well as pave the way for in-depth analysis and potential applications of Al plasmon systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Zhao
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Chenglin Du
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Rong Leng
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Li Li
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Weiwei Luo
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Wei Wu
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Yinxiao Xiang
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Mengxin Ren
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University Taiyuan Shanxi 030006 People's Republic of China
| | - Xinzheng Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University Taiyuan Shanxi 030006 People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Cai
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University Taiyuan Shanxi 030006 People's Republic of China
| | - Jingjun Xu
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics, TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University Tianjin 300457 China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University Taiyuan Shanxi 030006 People's Republic of China
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Renard D, Tian S, Lou M, Neumann O, Yang J, Bayles A, Solti D, Nordlander P, Halas NJ. UV-Resonant Al Nanocrystals: Synthesis, Silica Coating, and Broadband Photothermal Response. NANO LETTERS 2021; 21:536-542. [PMID: 33270458 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c04020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The field of plasmonics has largely been inspired by the properties of Au and Ag nanoparticles, leading to applications in sensing, photocatalysis, nanomedicine, and solar water treatment. Recently the quest for new plasmonic materials has focused on earth-abundant elements, where aluminum is a sustainable, low-cost potential alternative. Here we report the chemical synthesis of sub-50 nm diameter Al nanocrystals with a plasmon-resonant absorption in the UV region of the spectrum. We observe a transition from a UV-resonant response, that is, a colorless solution, to a broadband absorptive response, that is, a completely black solution, as the nanocrystal concentration is increased. The strong absorptive interband transition in Al provides the dominant mechanism responsible for this effect. We developed a robust method to functionalize Al nanocrystals with silica to increase their stability in H2O from hours to weeks enabling us to observe efficient broadband photothermal heating with these nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Renard
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Shu Tian
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Minhan Lou
- Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Oara Neumann
- Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Jian Yang
- Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Aaron Bayles
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - David Solti
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Peter Nordlander
- Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Naomi J Halas
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Laboratory for Nanophotonics, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
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8
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Yang Y, Hobbs RG, Keathley PD, Berggren KK. Electron energy loss of ultraviolet plasmonic modes in aluminum nanodisks. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:27405-27414. [PMID: 32988035 DOI: 10.1364/oe.401835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We theoretically investigated electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) of ultraviolet surface plasmon modes in aluminum nanodisks. Using full-wave Maxell electromagnetic simulations, we studied the impact of the diameter on the resonant modes of the nanodisks. We found that the mode behavior can be separately classified for two distinct cases: (1) flat nanodisks where the diameter is much larger than the thickness and (2) thick nanodisks where the diameter is comparable to the thickness. While the multipolar edge modes and breathing modes of flat nanostructures have previously been interpreted using intuitive, analytical models based on surface plasmon polariton (SPP) modes of a thin-film stack, it has been found that the true dispersion relation of the multipolar edge modes deviates significantly from the SPP dispersion relation. Here, we developed a modified intuitive model that uses effective wavelength theory to accurately model this dispersion relation with significantly less computational overhead compared to full-wave Maxwell electromagnetic simulations. However, for the case of thick nanodisks, this effective wavelength theory breaks down, and such intuitive models are no longer viable. We found that this is because some modes of the thick nanodisks carry a polar (i.e., out of the substrate plane or along the electron beam direction) dependence and cannot be simply categorized as radial breathing modes or angular (azimuthal) multipolar edge modes. This polar dependence leads to radiative losses, motivating the use of simultaneous EELS and cathodoluminescence measurements when experimentally investigating the complex mode behavior of thick nanostructures.
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Lambert AS, Valiulis SN, Malinick AS, Tanabe I, Cheng Q. Plasmonic Biosensing with Aluminum Thin Films under the Kretschmann Configuration. Anal Chem 2020; 92:8654-8659. [PMID: 32525300 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c01631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Aluminum has recently attracted considerable interest as a plasmonic material due to its unique optical properties, but most work has been limited to nanostructures. We report here SPR biosensing with aluminum thin-films using the standard Kretschmann configuration that has previously been dominated by gold films. Electron-beam physical vapor deposition (EBPVD)-prepared Al films oxidize in air to form a nanofilm of Al2O3, yielding robust stability for sensing applications in buffered solutions. FDTD simulations revealed a sharp plasmonic dip in the visible range that enables measurement of both angular shift and reflection intensity change at a fixed angle. Bulk and surface tests indicated that Al films exhibited superb sensitivity performance in both categories. Compared to Au, the Al/Al2O3 layer showed a marked effect of suppressing nonspecific binding from proteins in human serum. Further characterization indicated that Al film demonstrated a higher sensitivity and a wider working range than Au films when used for SPR imaging analysis. Combined with its economic and manufacturing benefits, the Al thin-film has the potential to become a highly advantageous plasmonic substrate to meet a wide range of biosensing needs in SPR configurations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander S Lambert
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Santino N Valiulis
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Alexander S Malinick
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Ichiro Tanabe
- Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
| | - Quan Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
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Zhu YP, El-Demellawi JK, Yin J, Lopatin S, Lei Y, Liu Z, Miao X, Mohammed OF, Alshareef HN. Unprecedented Surface Plasmon Modes in Monoclinic MoO 2 Nanostructures. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e1908392. [PMID: 32201985 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201908392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2019] [Revised: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Developing stable plasmonic materials featuring earth-abundant compositions with continuous band structures, similar to those of typical metals, has received special research interest. Owing to their metal-like behavior, monoclinic MoO2 nanostructures have been found to support stable and intense surface plasmon (SP) resonances. However, no progress has been made on their energy and spatial distributions over individual nanostructures, nor the origin of their possibly existing specific SP modes. Here, various MoO2 nanostructures are designed via polydopamine chemistry and managed to visualize multiple longitudinal and transversal SP modes supported by the monoclinic MoO2 , along with intrinsic interband transitions, using scanning transmission electron microscopy coupled with ultrahigh-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy. The identified geometry-dependent SP energies are tuned by either controlling the shape and thickness of MoO2 nanostructures through their well-designed chemical synthesis, or by altering their length using a developed electron-beam patterning technique. Theoretical calculations reveal that the strong plasmonic behavior of the monoclinic MoO2 is associated with the abundant delocalized electrons in the Mo d orbitals. This work not only provides a significant improvement in imaging and tailoring SPs of nonconventional metallic nanostructures, but also highlights the potential of MoO2 nanostructures for micro-nano optical and optoelectronic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Pei Zhu
- Materials Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jehad K El-Demellawi
- Materials Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jun Yin
- Division of Physical Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sergei Lopatin
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Core Labs, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yongjiu Lei
- Materials Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Zhixiong Liu
- Materials Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Xiaohe Miao
- Westlake University, Xihu District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310024, China
| | - Omar F Mohammed
- Division of Physical Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Husam N Alshareef
- Materials Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
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11
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Biswas R, Singh H, Banerjee B, Haldar KK. Zn(II) Di‐isobutyldithiocarbamate Complex Enabled Efficient Synthesis of Au/ZnS Nanocomposite Core‐shell in One Pot. ChemistrySelect 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201900561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rathindranath Biswas
- Department of Chemical SciencesSchool of Basic and Applied SciencesCentral University of Punjab, Bathinda 151001 Punjab India
| | - Harjinder Singh
- Department of Chemical SciencesSchool of Basic and Applied SciencesCentral University of Punjab, Bathinda 151001 Punjab India
| | - Biplab Banerjee
- Department of Chemical SciencesSchool of Basic and Applied SciencesCentral University of Punjab, Bathinda 151001 Punjab India
| | - Krishna K. Haldar
- Department of Chemical SciencesSchool of Basic and Applied SciencesCentral University of Punjab, Bathinda 151001 Punjab India
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12
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Zhang K, Xiao X, Wang X, Fan Y, Li X. Topographical patterning: characteristics of current processing techniques, controllable effects on material properties and co-cultured cell fate, updated applications in tissue engineering, and improvement strategies. J Mater Chem B 2019; 7:7090-7109. [DOI: 10.1039/c9tb01682a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Topographical patterning has recently attracted lots of attention in regulating cell fate, understanding the mechanism of cell–microenvironment interactions, and solving the great issues of regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing 100083
- China
| | - Xiongfu Xiao
- Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing 100083
- China
| | - Xiumei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of New Ceramic and Fine Processing
- Tsinghua University
- Beijing 100084
- China
| | - Yubo Fan
- Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing 100083
- China
| | - Xiaoming Li
- Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing 100083
- China
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13
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Li L, Cai W, Du C, Guan Z, Xiang Y, Ma Z, Wu W, Ren M, Zhang X, Tang A, Xu J. Cathodoluminescence nanoscopy of open single-crystal aluminum plasmonic nanocavities. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:22357-22361. [PMID: 30474670 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr06545d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Exact understanding of the plasmon response of aluminum (Al) nanostructures in deep subwavelengths is critical for the design of Al based plasmonic applications, such as the emission control of quantum dots and surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering in the ultraviolet (UV) range. Here, the plasmonic properties of open triangle cavities patterned by a focused ion beam in single-crystal bulk Al were explored using cathodoluminescence. The resonant modes were determined by experimental spectra and deep subwavelength real-space mode patterns ranging from the visible to the UV, which agreed well with full-wave electromagnetic simulations. The dispersion relation of the cavity modes was consistent with that at the interface between Al and vacuum, showing strong electromagnetic field confinement in the cavities. Open Al triangle cavities provided room for the interaction between optical emitters and confined electromagnetic fields, paving the way for plasmonic devices for a variety of applications, such as plasmonic light-emitting devices or nanolasers in the UV range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics, Ministry of Education, School of Physics and TEDA Applied Physics Institute, Nankai University, Tianjin 300457, China.
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14
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Zhang XY, Han D, Ma N, Gao R, Zhu A, Guo S, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Yang J, Chen L. Carrier Density-Dependent Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance and Charge Transfer Observed by Controllable Semiconductor Content. J Phys Chem Lett 2018; 9:6047-6051. [PMID: 30188128 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b02416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
We discuss how the controllable carrier influences the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) and charge transfer (CT) in the same system based on ultraviolet-visible and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) measurements. The LSPR can be easily tuned from 580 to 743 nm by changing the sputtering power of Cu2S in the Ag and Cu2S composite substrate. During this process, surprisingly, we find that the LSPR is proportional to the sputtering power of Cu2S. This observation indicates that LSPR can be accurately adjusted by changing the content of the semiconductor, or even the carrier density. Moreover, we characterize the carrier density through the detection of the Hall effect to analyze the Raman shift caused by CT and obtain the relationships between them. These fundamental discussions provide a guideline for tunable LSPR and the investigation of CT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Yuan Zhang
- Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Changchun 130033 , PR China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , PR China
- Key Laboratory of Functional Materials Physics and Chemistry of the Ministry of Education , Jilin Normal University , Changchun 130103 , PR China
| | - Donglai Han
- School of Materials Science and Engineering , Changchun University of Science and Technology , Changchun 130022 , PR China
| | - Ning Ma
- Key Laboratory of Functional Materials Physics and Chemistry of the Ministry of Education , Jilin Normal University , Changchun 130103 , PR China
| | - Renxian Gao
- Key Laboratory of Functional Materials Physics and Chemistry of the Ministry of Education , Jilin Normal University , Changchun 130103 , PR China
| | - Aonan Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Functional Materials Physics and Chemistry of the Ministry of Education , Jilin Normal University , Changchun 130103 , PR China
| | - Shuang Guo
- Key Laboratory of Functional Materials Physics and Chemistry of the Ministry of Education , Jilin Normal University , Changchun 130103 , PR China
| | - Yongjun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Functional Materials Physics and Chemistry of the Ministry of Education , Jilin Normal University , Changchun 130103 , PR China
| | - Yaxin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Functional Materials Physics and Chemistry of the Ministry of Education , Jilin Normal University , Changchun 130103 , PR China
| | - Jinghai Yang
- Key Laboratory of Functional Materials Physics and Chemistry of the Ministry of Education , Jilin Normal University , Changchun 130103 , PR China
| | - Lei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Functional Materials Physics and Chemistry of the Ministry of Education , Jilin Normal University , Changchun 130103 , PR China
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15
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El-Demellawi JK, Lopatin S, Yin J, Mohammed OF, Alshareef HN. Tunable Multipolar Surface Plasmons in 2D Ti 3C 2 T x MXene Flakes. ACS NANO 2018; 12:8485-8493. [PMID: 30020767 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b04029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
2D Ti3C2 T x MXenes were recently shown to exhibit intense surface plasmon (SP) excitations; however, their spatial variation over individual Ti3C2 T x flakes remains undiscovered. Here, we use scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) combined with ultra-high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) to investigate the spatial and energy distribution of SPs (both optically active and forbidden modes) in mono- and multilayered Ti3C2 T x flakes. With STEM-EELS mapping, the inherent interband transition in addition to a variety of transversal and longitudinal SP modes (ranging from visible down to 0.1 eV in MIR) are directly visualized and correlated with the shape, size, and thickness of Ti3C2 T x flakes. The independent polarizability of Ti3C2 T x monolayers is unambiguously demonstrated and attributed to their unusual weak interlayer coupling. This characteristic allows for engineering a class of nanoscale systems, where each monolayer in the multilayered structure of Ti3C2 T x has its own set of SPs with distinctive multipolar characters. Moreover, the tunability of the SP energies is highlighted by conducting in situ heating STEM to monitor the change of the surface functionalization of Ti3C2 T x through annealing at temperatures up to 900 °C. At temperatures above 500 °C, the observed fluorine (F) desorption multiplies the metal-like free electron density of Ti3C2 T x flakes, resulting in a monotonic blue-shift in the SP energy of all modes. These results underline the great potential for the development of Ti3C2 T x-based applications, spanning the visible-MIR spectrum, relying on the excitation and detection of single SPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jehad K El-Demellawi
- Physical Sciences and Engineering Division , King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- KAUST Solar Center (KSC) , King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Sergei Lopatin
- Core Laboratories , King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Jun Yin
- KAUST Solar Center (KSC) , King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Omar F Mohammed
- KAUST Solar Center (KSC) , King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Husam N Alshareef
- Physical Sciences and Engineering Division , King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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16
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Zhong C, Flanigan P, Abadía N, Bello F, Jennings BD, Atcheson G, Li J, Zheng JY, Wang JJ, Hobbs R, McCloskey D, Donegan JF. Effective heat dissipation in an adiabatic near-field transducer for HAMR. OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 26:18842-18854. [PMID: 30114145 DOI: 10.1364/oe.26.018842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
To achieve a feasible heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) system, a near-field transducer (NFT) is necessary to strongly focus the optical field to a lateral region measuring tens of nanometres in size. An NFT must deliver sufficient power to the recording medium as well as maintain its structural integrity. The self-heating problem in the NFT causes materials failure that leads to the degradation of the hard disk drive performance. The literature reports NFT structures with physical sizes well below 1 micron which were found to be thermo-mechanically unstable at an elevated temperature. In this paper, we demonstrate an adiabatic NFT to address the central challenge of thermal engineering for a HAMR system. The NFT is formed by an isosceles triangular gold taper plasmonic waveguide with a length of 6 µm and a height of 50 nm. Our study shows that in the full optically and thermally optimized system, the NFT efficiently extracts the incident light from the waveguide core and can improve the shape of the heating source profile for data recording. The most important insight of the thermal performance is that the recording medium can be heated up to 866 K with an input power of 8.5 mW which is above the Curie temperature of the FePt film while maintaining the temperature in the NFT at 390 K without a heat spreader. A very good thermal efficiency of 5.91 is achieved also. The proposed structure is easily fabricated and can potentially reduce the NFT deformation at a high recording temperature making it suitable for practical HAMR application.
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17
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Garg V, Sengar BS, Awasthi V, Kumar A, Singh R, Kumar S, Mukherjee C, Atuchin VV, Mukherjee S. Investigation of Dual-Ion Beam Sputter-Instigated Plasmon Generation in TCOs: A Case Study of GZO. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:5464-5474. [PMID: 29356500 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b15103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The use of the high free-electron concentration in heavily doped semiconductor enables the realization of plasmons. We report a novel approach to generate plasmons in Ga:ZnO (GZO) thin films in the wide spectral range of ∼1.87-10.04 eV. In the grown GZO thin films, dual-ion beam sputtering (DIBS) instigated plasmon is observed because of the formation of different metallic nanoclusters are reported. Moreover, formation of the nanoclusters and generation of plasmons are verified by field emission scanning electron microscope, electron energy loss spectra obtained by ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy, and spectroscopic ellipsometry analysis. Moreover, the calculation of valence bulk, valence surface, and particle plasmon resonance energies are performed, and indexing of each plasmon peaks with corresponding plasmon energy peak of the different nanoclusters is carried out. Further, the use of DIBS-instigated plasmon-enhanced GZO can be a novel mean to improve the performance of photovoltaic, photodetector, and sensing devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Garg
- Hybrid Nanodevice Research Group (HNRG), Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Indore , Indore 453552, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Brajendra S Sengar
- Hybrid Nanodevice Research Group (HNRG), Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Indore , Indore 453552, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Vishnu Awasthi
- Hybrid Nanodevice Research Group (HNRG), Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Indore , Indore 453552, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Amitesh Kumar
- Hybrid Nanodevice Research Group (HNRG), Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Indore , Indore 453552, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Rohit Singh
- Hybrid Nanodevice Research Group (HNRG), Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Indore , Indore 453552, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Shailendra Kumar
- Raja Ramanna Center for Advanced Technology , Indore 452013, India
| | - C Mukherjee
- Advanced Laser and Optics Division, Raja Ramanna Center for Advanced Technology , Indore 452013, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute , Training School Complex, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai 400094, India
| | - V V Atuchin
- Laboratory of Optical Materials and Structures, Institute of Semiconductor Physics, SB RAS , Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
- Functional Electronics Laboratory, Tomsk State University , Tomsk 634050, Russia
- Laboratory of Single Crystal Growth, South Ural State University , Chelyabinsk 454080, Russia
| | - Shaibal Mukherjee
- Hybrid Nanodevice Research Group (HNRG), Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Indore , Indore 453552, Madhya Pradesh, India
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18
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Xiong Y, Xin P, Chen W, Wang Y, Zhang S, Ren H, Rong H, Zheng X, Chen C, Peng Q, Wang D, Li Y. PtAl truncated octahedron nanocrystals for improved formic acid electrooxidation. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:3951-3954. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cc00970h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We prepared well-defined PtAl truncated octahedron alloy nanocrystals with a large density of surface defects, which exhibit enhanced electroactivity in FOR.
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19
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Wu Y, Li G, Camden JP. Probing Nanoparticle Plasmons with Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy. Chem Rev 2017; 118:2994-3031. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yueying Wu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Guoliang Li
- Center for Electron Microscopy, Institute for New Energy Materials and Low-Carbon Technologies, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China
| | - Jon P. Camden
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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20
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Frydendahl C, Repän T, Geisler M, Novikov SM, Beermann J, Lavrinenko AV, Xiao S, Bozhevolnyi SI, Mortensen NA, Stenger N. Optical reconfiguration and polarization control in semi-continuous gold films close to the percolation threshold. NANOSCALE 2017; 9:12014-12024. [PMID: 28795742 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr03378h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Controlling and confining light by exciting plasmons in resonant metallic nanostructures is an essential aspect of many new emerging optical technologies. Here we explore the possibility of controllably reconfiguring the intrinsic optical properties of semi-continuous gold films, by inducing permanent morphological changes with a femtosecond (fs)-pulsed laser above a critical power. Optical transmission spectroscopy measurements show a correlation between the spectra of the morphologically modified films and the wavelength, polarization, and the intensity of the laser used for alteration. In order to understand the modifications induced by the laser writing, we explore the near-field properties of these films with electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS). A comparison between our experimental data and full-wave simulations on the exact film morphologies hints toward a restructuring of the intrinsic plasmonic eigenmodes of the metallic film by photothermal effects. We explain these optical changes with a simple model and demonstrate experimentally that laser writing can be used to controllably modify the optical properties of these semi-continuous films. These metal films offer an easy-to-fabricate and scalable platform for technological applications such as molecular sensing and ultra-dense data storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Frydendahl
- Department of Photonics Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Ørsteds Plads 343, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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21
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Manfrinato VR, Stein A, Zhang L, Nam CY, Yager KG, Stach EA, Black CT. Aberration-Corrected Electron Beam Lithography at the One Nanometer Length Scale. NANO LETTERS 2017; 17:4562-4567. [PMID: 28418673 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b00514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Patterning materials efficiently at the smallest length scales is a longstanding challenge in nanotechnology. Electron-beam lithography (EBL) is the primary method for patterning arbitrary features, but EBL has not reliably provided sub-4 nm patterns. The few competing techniques that have achieved this resolution are orders of magnitude slower than EBL. In this work, we employed an aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope for lithography to achieve unprecedented resolution. Here we show aberration-corrected EBL at the one nanometer length scale using poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and have produced both the smallest isolated feature in any conventional resist (1.7 ± 0.5 nm) and the highest density patterns in PMMA (10.7 nm pitch for negative-tone and 17.5 nm pitch for positive-tone PMMA). We also demonstrate pattern transfer from the resist to semiconductor and metallic materials at the sub-5 nm scale. These results indicate that polymer-based nanofabrication can achieve feature sizes comparable to the Kuhn length of PMMA and ten times smaller than its radius of gyration. Use of aberration-corrected EBL will increase the resolution, speed, and complexity in nanomaterial fabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitor R Manfrinato
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973-5000, United States
| | - Aaron Stein
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973-5000, United States
| | - Lihua Zhang
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973-5000, United States
| | - Chang-Yong Nam
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973-5000, United States
| | - Kevin G Yager
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973-5000, United States
| | - Eric A Stach
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973-5000, United States
| | - Charles T Black
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973-5000, United States
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